Twelfth Night And Crossdressing Essay Example For Students

Twelfth Night And Crossdressing Essay An Imitation of IgnoranceThe play Twelfth Night typifies what it intended to take care of business and ladies throughoutthe sixteenth century. The jobs of every sex were unchangeable, and one could notpublicly traverse under any conditions. During Shakespearean occasions ladies werenot even permitted to depict themselves in front of an audience, men assumed their jobs. Inmy supposition Shakespeare utilizes the play to show the lip service of business as usual thatheld individuals from communicating their actual character. Twelfth Night shows thatprofessions ought not be given on a sex premise, ability ought to be the onlyconsideration. During the play one sees that just through impersonation of anothergender can an individual opposite the jobs, which they are attached to. In Twelfth Nightimitation of another sex is done both due to legitimate need, and for vengeance. InTwelfth Night ones sexual inclination was not a purpose behind sex inversion. Viola/Cesario who has recently lost he r sibling in a wreck feels that she needs todress as a man to make due on the island of Illyria. Furthermore, what would it be advisable for me to do inIllyria? My sibling he is in Elysium. Perchance his not drownd what you think. Viola changes her name to Cesario and starts her new life as a man. Viola/Cesariocrosses the limits and becomes Orsinos best worker. This depiction of a womansuccessfully mimicking a man is an undeniable denouncement of the purported sexual orientation rolesof the Elizabethan period. All through the play impersonation is utilized for retribution and playsan essential job in the lives of a couple of supporting characters. In this situation it isused to mislead Malvolio, a self important worker, to show him a thing or two in his relationswith others. Shakespeare clarifies that double dealing, when utilized forentertainment, can be ruinous. Twelfth Night manages issues that happen when someone is compelled to imitateanother sex, or someone else. Supplicate Go d safeguard me! An easily overlooked detail would make metell them the amount I absence of a man. These issues are exhibited through sexualtension between practically the entirety of the characters. The characters appear to achieve mostof their set objectives, yet some way or another something hinders them from perfect impersonation. We will compose a custom article on Twelfth Night And Crossdressing explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now Viola/Cesario is bothered and has no clue about how to live without a legitimate pay. Shelives in a general public that just permits men to work particular kinds of employments. Theseprofessions are the ones that get the greater part of the cash. Hence she beginsto emulate a man, and passes by the name Cesario. Her calling was to be a servantto the Duke Orsino. Sick serve this Duke; Thou shalt present me as an eunuch tohim, it might be worth thy torments; for I can sing and address him in numerous sorts ofmusic that will permit me extremely worth his administration. The chief that spared her agreedto coach her in masculinity, and she completely grasped what it is to take care of business duringthese times. She got her calling very rapidly. Her impersonation did havelimitations in any case. She ran into issues because of sexual desires and these demonstrated tobe unconquerable. Viola/Cesario experienced passionate feelings for her lord, and couldn't discover away to appropriately advi se him regarding her actual character. The second issue she encounteredwas Olivia, a rich royal lady, winds up becoming hopelessly enamored with her. Viola/Cesario did notknow how to deal with these specific circumstances as a man so she managed them as awoman. This gets apparent because of an occurrence were she nearly kisses Orsino; and shedoes not make it understood to Olivia why someone would not have any desire to kiss her, a beautifulwoman. All through the play Shakespeare edifies his crowd by indicating estrangement, whichoccurs when someone is compelled to emulate an individual who they are definitely not. Viola/Cesarionot just distances Olivia and Orsino, however she likewise disengages herself from feelingsthat are undefeatable. This makes the characters be in a befuddled state and eachbegins to scrutinize their sexuality. Olivia sees herself as an appealing woman,and numerous men have consistently sought after her. Olivia, be that as it may, has never felt the samepassion ate fascination towards another man. She at long last meets a man, or so shethinks, and he isn't attracted to her. This leaves her to address on the off chance that she will everfind genuine romance. However come back once more; for thou maybe mayst move that heart which nowabhors, to like his adoration. Through this difficulty Orsino additionally gets befuddled by hissexuality. He sees past Viola/Cesario attire and begins to look all starry eyed at her. After afew minutes were Viola/Cesario and Orsino are close he comes to understand that itwould not be ethically option to have sexual energy for another man. He gradually movesaway and starts to scrutinize his emotions. At the point when everything is settled genuine sentiments arefinally uncovered, and the characters see both their destinies had genuine romance inthe future. It is awful however that sorrow was because of a basic societalstructure that holds no premise on the planet. .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .postImageUrl , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .focused content territory { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:hover , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:visited , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:active { border:0!important; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; murkiness: 1; progress: mistiness 250ms; webkit-progress: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:active , .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:hover { darkness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-progress: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relative; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-adornment: underline; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; fringe sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe range: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-enrichment: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u201c199b331 ec4deb09196a083b31e5e .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u201c199b331ec4deb09196a083b31e5e:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Girl EssayMalvolio, a worker of Olivia, is additionally harmed by an impersonation. Opposite toViola/Cesarios impersonation this one was not done due to legitimate need. The impersonation isexecuted by associates of Malvolio that look for vengeance at the manner in which he had beentreating them. Feste the buffoon, Maria, Olivias uncle Sir Toby Belch, and Sir Tobysfriend Sir Andrew Aguecheekwho plan to subvert the decent, pompousMalvolio. Malvolio is fooled into trusting Olivia is enamored with him on account of aletter that said only that. Malvolio accepts the impersonation letter, and hischaracter unexpectedly changes from egotistical to happy. Pitiful woman? I could be dismal. Thisdoes make some impediment in the blood, this cross-gartering, yet as the genuine sonnetis Please one, and please all.' Shakespeare set this sub-plot to show theaudience how inconvenient guile can be the point at which it is utilized with affection. At the point when Malvoliodiscovers the abhorrent stunt he is distressed, and sorrowful. Madam, you have done mewrong, famous wrong. From Malvolios case one starts to recall cases wherethey have utilized cunning or impersonation for retribution upon someone else. Malvolioscharacter shows the harm that can happen to ones mind. Shakespeare makes it clearthat love is very unpredictable and ought not be works with. One leaves the theatreremembering past circumstances where comparative strategies were utilized; trusting that they hadnot caused harm equivalent to that of Malvolios. Shakespeare dives into waters that were untested all through the Elizabethan period. Heasks the crowd to check whether there is any reason for explicit sexual orientation jobs. Theaudience is never shocked all through the entire play, and the tone of every one of thecharacters doesn't vacillate. In any event, when Orsino discovers his best worker is aman. One must not just gander at the tone of the characters, the tone of the audienceis significant also. I was lucky enough to have the option to go to an introduction ofTwelfth Night at the University of Wisconsin this previous year. A considerable lot of the socialissues concerning Twelfth Night (Homophobia, cross-dressing) despite everything remain prevalentin our general public today. During scenes including gay contact, the crowd didnot appear to be paralyzed. The crowd seemed to acknowledge that Viola/Cesario was really awoman, and the affection that exemplified Orsino and Olivia was heedless to sex. Theaudience likewise totally d ismissed sexual orientation, and concurred with Shakespeare that truelove draws no limits. One likewise became mindful that Viola/Cesario could perform thetasks that were asked of her. She even demonstrated to carry out her responsibility incredibly and becameOrsinos best worker. The exhibition assaulted the individuals who are oblivious enough tohold sentiments that ruin the progressions of

The Search for Wisdom Essay Example For Students

The Search for Wisdom Essay The Search for WisdomWisdom, as characterized in the word reference, is the entirety of learning through the ages; information. Platos Socrates demonstrates that shrewdness is the affirmation of numbness. This announcement might be difficult to demonstrate as evident. In the event that a hard of hearing and unable to speak man came to understand that he knew nothing, since he can't learn it, does this make him insightful? I don't accept so. At that point, if an unmistakable educator who has read for a considerable length of time and has learned numerous things, comes to accept that he is oblivious to the genuine types of behavior that most people will accept as normal, does that make him insightful? Potentially so. All in all, what is the distinction here? The thing that matters is information. I accept, and the word reference focuses to the way that, one must contain a lot of information to be insightful. We will compose a custom article on The Search for Wisdom explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now In Apology, Socrates says that What is likely, respectable men, is the way that the god is astute and that his mysterious reaction implied that human intelligence is worth little or nothing This announcement originates from Socrates after he has looked Athens for an individual that was insightful. The facts may prove that his god was savvy, as divine beings are typically all-knowing creatures. In any case, what makes a divine being savvy? It must be his insight into every single natural thing. At that point, for what reason is human insight worth little or nothing? It might appear as though human intelligence is worth little or nothing in examination with the shrewdness of the divine beings, however in contrast with different people, for what reason should human insight be worth little or nothing? I accept that human intelligence merits a lot, and that there are people who are very astute, however they might not have conceded that they were oblivious. It might be an insightful idea, to accept that you are oblivious, on the grounds that there is such a great amount out there on the planet to discover that no human would ever learn everything; except does shrewdness come exclusively from this confirmation? In the event that a gathering of individuals genuinely wanted knowledge, would it be a good idea for them to simply come to understand that there is such a great amount on the planet to discover that they ought to never endeavor to learn everything, and along these lines be savvy along these lines? I don't accept so. I accept that for this gathering to be savvy they should look all through their entire lives for bits of information that will potentially make them shrewd, and educated, later on. Astuteness, at that point, is by all accounts a corresponding to knowledge.When Socrates is scanning for men that are more shrewd that him, he takes a gander at the government officials, artists, and skilled workers of Athens. In the case of the skilled workers, Socrates expresses that indeed, they should have an information on their specialty, but since they were astute along these lines, they figured they could talk knowledgably about numerous different things that they didn't think a lot about. I concur with Socrates in the way that numerous individuals do convey a misguided feeling of knowledge, and imagine that they are correct even in circumstances they think minimal about. The difficult I see here is that Socrates demonstrates that these skilled workers must not be insightful on the grounds that they have this misguided feeling of information about different subjects. I accept that these specialists could in any case be insightful, and off-base about specific things, simultaneously. For instance, if you somehow managed to go get some information about a clinical technique, he would doubtlessly offer you an insightful response, since he has the information to do as such. Similarly, in the event that you pose a lawmaker about a political inquiry, he will presumably offer you a shrewd response also. However, on the off chance that you ask this equivalent specialist the political inquiry, he will in any case answer, yet not such that a legislator could. Does this make the specialist un-wise? I don't think so. So the specialist is proficient in the region of medication, similarly as the skilled worker was learned in the territory of his specialty. .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .postImageUrl , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .focused content region { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:hover , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:visited , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:active { border:0!important; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-change: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:active , .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:hover { obscurity: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-progress: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relativ e; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content improvement: underline; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt span: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; textual style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-outskirt range: 3px; content adjust: focus; content embellishment: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: outright; right: 0; top: 0; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u502a874a b2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u502a874ab2eeec92da8d22bfc8787072:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay Does this imply the specialist is shrewd with regards to medication? Indeed, I trust it does, as I accept that the specialist was insightful in his art. This may again outline the possibility that shrewdness and information are equal, and

President Lee C. Bollinger Statement on the Earthquake in Nepal COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

President Lee C. Bollinger Statement on the Earthquake in Nepal COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Please know that our thoughts are with our Seeple, alumni, family and friends who were impacted by Nepals  massive, 7.8-magnitude earthquake on Saturday. In  the aftermath of this  devastating  quake, help to provide relief is still needed.  While many Seeple cant get on the next flight to Kathmandu and help (Jessica Alexander, MIA 05, actually advises against it  in this article for Slate.com), there are other ways to offer assistance.   For anyone who would like to donate to the  relief efforts, Columbia University President Lee C. Bollinger has shared a list of organizations accepting donations. His statement on the Nepal quake is below. Our thoughts are with the people of Nepal and the unspeakable suffering caused by the earthquake there. As we mourn the terrible loss of life in Nepal, we are also turning to ways in which our community can support critical relief efforts and the daunting process of rebuilding from the wreckage. Given the size and diversity of our global University community, rarely does a day go by when some event in the news, either close to home or halfway around the world, touches our lives in some way and our sense of common humanity. The scale of the disaster we are witnessing in Nepal is staggering and requires our recognition and a sustained response. The University will be gathering more information about ways to support Nepal relief efforts. Here is a list of some of the organizations already accepting donations: American Red Cross The American Red Cross is assisting in evaluating the damage caused by the earthquake as well as developing preparedness for future disasters. It is also providing first aid on the ground and reuniting families who have been separated. MercyCorps MercyCorps is distributing supplies needed immediately, such as water purification tablets and containers, blankets, hygiene products, clothes and cooking utensils. CARE CARE, which focuses on eradicating poverty, is setting up shelters and distributing hygiene products to victims of the earthquake. Habitat for Humanity Habitat for Humanity will be setting up temporary shelters for people in left homeless in Kathmandu and surrounding areas. Save the Children Save the Children targets the needs of children, and has sent baby packs that include blankets, clothes, soap and other materials. OxFam America OxFam America, which fights poverty and hunger, is ensuring people in the epicenter of the earthquake receive clean water, sanitation and food. UNICEF The U.N. branch, which focuses on childrens rights and wellbeing, has sent emergency response teams to ensure child victims of the earthquake are finding sanitary shelter. UNICEF is also providing clean water, education and child protection.

Theodore Roosevelt And The Progressive Party - 987 Words

In 1912, the Progressive Party formed to support Theodore Roosevelt in his attempt to be elected for a third presidential term (O Toole par. 7, 11). The party was formed after the Republican National Convention repudiated the nomination of Roosevelt (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 251). Furthermore, this resulted in Roosevelt splitting the Republican vote between him and William Howard Taft and gave Democrat Woodrow Wilson an advantage (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt). The Progressive Party took a platform that was new and innovative for the time period in which it began. To understand the the start of the Progressive Party one must acknowledge its political platform, the outcome of the presidential election between Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, and the outcome and end of the Progressive Party. After failing to receive the nomination, those who supported Roosevelt had to develop another strategy for his campaign. To run as a third party member, Roosevelt would continue to require financia l support. James Chance, professor of government and public law at Bard College, claims that, Roosevelt was assured that he would have the financial backing he would need . . . when his financial supporters, George Perkins and millionaire publisher Frank Munsey, met with him . . . At that moment the Progressive Party was born (120-121). Following this meeting, all that was left before the Progressive Party would have a nominee was for Roosevelt to accept. He responded saying, I shall acceptShow MoreRelatedTheodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Party Essay1877 Words   |  8 Pagesthe creation of a third party called the Progressive Party. It was also known as the â€Å"Bull Moose Party.† Some of the programs and policies that are still in existence today were created by The Progressive Party who reached their peak during the 1912 Presidential election (Milkis, p. 30). Theodore Roosevelt had become the President after William McKinley was assassinated; he became the youngest President at the age 42. As a President, he attempted to move the Republican Party into the direction of ProgressivismRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt : A Leader Of This Great Nation1666 Words   |  7 PagesJefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln. It is clear why George Washington, as the first president, Thomas Jefferson, as third president and author of the Declaration of Independence, and Abraham Lincoln, as the sixteenth president and the president during the Civil War, are forever sculpted into the side of the mountain, but why include Theodore Roosevelt? He only served for eight years, just like most presidents; there weren’t any major wars that occurred during his presidency. Theodore RooseveltRead MoreThe Election of 1912 Essay1054 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Progressive Era, Americans faced the challenge of choosing between four strong candidates of the election of 1912. Each candidate held concrete platforms that would have different effects on progressivism. Americans could chose the conservative presidential incumbent William Howard Taft(R), the New Jersey governor Woodrow Wilson (D), the long-time fighter for social reform-Eugene V. Debs (S), or the former president Theodore Roosevelt of the newly formed Bull Moose Party (Progressive Party). ThroughRead MoreEssay about 1912 Election1032 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Progressive Era, Americans faced the challenge of choosing between four strong candidates of the election of 1912. Each candidate held concrete platforms that would have different effects on progressivism. Americans could chose the conservative presidential incumbent William Howard Taft(R), the New Jersey governor Woodrow Wilson (D), the long-time fighter for social reform-Eugene V. Debs (S), or the former president Theodore Roosevelt of the newly formed Bull Moose Party (Progressive Party). ThroughRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt Essay1499 Words   |  6 Pagespresident of the United States of America was a man called Theodore R oosevelt. Although he began his term as president with the death of President McKinley, his period in the White House turned out to be one of the most progressive periods in American history. His progressive policies influenced the direction that the country would take in the twentieth century. In the following paper I will explain several of Theodore Roosevelt’s progressive polices. Specifically I will deal with his labor policiesRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt, President Of New York1745 Words   |  7 Pageson October 27, 1858, Theodore Roosevelt was governor of New York before becoming U.S. vice president. At age 42, Teddy Roosevelt became the youngest man to assume the U.S. presidency after President William McKinley was assassinated in 1901. He won a second term in 1904. Known for his anti-monopoly policies and ecological conservationism, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his part in ending the Russo-Japanese War. He died in New York on January 6, 1919. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on OctoberRead MoreRoosevelt, Taft, and Wilson: Progressive Presidents1675 Words   |  7 Pagescountry and the Progressive Era, more than a decade. The presidents of this time, Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, were like chefs developing a recipe for the betterment of the United States. Every act that was passed, each decision that was made, was a trial or taste-test of the constantly changing recipe for the country. If something angered citizens or drew criticism, the president went back to his office, his kitchen, and was ready to make more changes. Where he left off in the progressive recipe, theRead MoreTheodore Roosevelt s The Progressive Era Essay1543 Words   |  7 PagesTheodore Roosevelt’s presidency marked the beginning of a very liberal period in American history. This new ‘Progressive Era’ was mobilized largely by the middle class as an attempt to put an end to the problems created by the period of excess that was the Gild ed Age. Believing that big business was ruining democracy, and assuming a moral obligation to shield the poor and downtrodden from corrupt capitalists, the Progressives commenced an era of sweeping reforms. From the outset, the ProgressiveRead MoreExtent to which the Republican Party Liberalized1502 Words   |  6 PagesA. Plan of Investigation The Progressive Era was a time characterized by a multitude of reactions to the inherent problems in American society and politics. The previous age of â€Å"gilded† politics had left the American political system fraught with corruption and inefficiency, and the rise of industrialization made clear the socioeconomic divide between the lower and upper classes. Progressivism became a loosely connected movement of legislation, ideas, and people striving to improve theRead MoreAndrew Jackson And Theadore Roosevelt Essay1169 Words   |  5 PagesAndrew Jackson and Theodore Roosevelt were two men with very many things in common. They both were Presidents in the United States of America at some point in time. They each have served many years as some sort of governor with Jackson being the military governor of Florida and Roosevelt being the governor of New York. Roosevelt and Jackson were major influences towards this country. But even with those similarities between them they were two men with differences. One was a big military man while

The Decline Of Colonial India - 1699 Words

Colonial India was under the laws and jurisdiction of European colonialism for nearly 200 years. Starting from laws, the European jurisdiction was able to show off power through conquest and trade. A lot has happened since the arrival of the British in the global south, with the birth of the East India Company which led to the epidemic famine of 1770. Which caused an economic burst as well as rapid population decline. Due to laws and rules of the East India Company, The famine, in which only the jurisdiction benefited, resulted in malnutrition of people and unable to feed the population, the outcome was 10 million deaths. From the beginnings the East Indian Company (EIC) handled half of the global trade, faced rivals and voyages. Recognizing the profits in the overseas trade, the joint stock company was able to trade cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium. The company ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. With the company facing various conflict with the Portuguese and Dutch in the Indian Ocean. The company took initiative in discovering the land of India while gaining a territorial foothold due to the victory of Battle of Swally, 1612. During that time India was being ruled by the Mughal Empire under Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (1605–1627). Sir Thomas Roe, a diplomat ambassador during that time, was able to arrange a trade treaty with the emperor to give rights to reside and build factories in India. As a repayment, theShow MoreRelatedWw2 Analysis913 Words   |  4 Pagesenjoyed Dominion status which secured that through full internal self-government ¹, a degree of independence from Britain existed. Very differently on the Indian sub-continent, in the Caribbean, and in most African territories the wishes of the colonials mostly proved docile to the needs of the mother country. In fact, where most British settlements were not included in the discussion of Britain declaring war for them in September 1939, overall, each province individually decided when and how theyRead MoreWhat Were the Main Causes of British Decolonization After World War Two?1791 Words   |  7 Pagesservices for its youth. The new middle class looked at the government to subsidize the acquisitions through various measures, such as tax reliefs, grants and even diversion of resources for colonial purpose. Imperial values had never been of any interest to the new middle class and so the use of money being spent in colonial areas became increasingly resented. For example, funding used to improve Tanganyikin land-use and money spent on defeating the Mau Mau insurgents were looked at negatively. The newRead MoreA Brief Note On The Early Modern Period1523 Words   |  7 Pagesthe globe. The Spanish established the encomienda system, in which the conquerors had the right to employ Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter, it was a legalized slavery. A large declin e in the Native’s population was caused by diseases introduced by the Europeans, as well as being overworked. Forced labor diverted local people from tending to their own crops, leading to malnutrition, and reduced fertility rates. The travel of peopleRead MoreNotes on Colonialism and Imperialism1489 Words   |  6 PagesCommunication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies * Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from years to weeks * Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900 * European imperialism * The British empire in India * Company rule under the English East India Company * EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s * Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay * Ruled domains with small BritishRead MoreImpact of Imperialism on Latin America and Southeast Asia1387 Words   |  6 Pagescolonization of India, one of which happens to be similar to the reason of colonization of Latin America. Global rivalry is one of the two mains causes of colonization. The British and French had a turbulent global rivalry between them, which led to the rise of the British raj. These two powers have been rivals for a long time, in the 18th century these to powers fought on opposite sides for 5 major wars (Adas et.al 2011). The desire of gaining wealth is second reason for which Britain colonized India. BritainRead MoreThe Role Of Modern Nationalism And The Middle East1639 Words   |  7 PagesIn this essay I will be discussing the role of modern nationalism and how this ideology affected the transition from colonial rule to independence in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, as well as the problems that plagued them since 1945, and how these different nati ons have solved them. I will be specifically concentrating on the nations of India, Algeria, and Iran. In the wake of World War Two, the power of Asian nationalism was irrepressible. Many new nations emerged all throughout this massiveRead More18th Century Debate5557 Words   |  23 Pagescentury India have been subject to great historical debate. 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Autism Is A Genetic Disorder - 907 Words

Although autism has spread globally, scientists continue conducting research to identify the precise causes. More specifically, they are zeroing in on genetic mutations, brain chemistry abnormalities, and maternal factors. One possible cause that can lead to autism is genetic mutations. First of all, families studies indicate that children can affected by autism through heredity. It is true that children inherited some characteristics from their parents. This is because a chromosome of a child produced by one chromosome father and the other one from mother, which formed as DNA. As a matter of fact, if parents have some genetic disease, they can pass it to the offspring through DNA. In same way, because autism is a genetic disorder, it can pass down generation. In fact, according to Cowley (2000), the prevalence of having autistic child is 5% of family who already has this disorder, which means around 25 times the normal average. Clearly, inheriting autism through families result in i ncreasing the number of autistic children in the population. Another evidence shows that autism can caused by inheriting genetic disorder is through conducting twins studies. There are two types of twins. First one is identical twins, which formed by splitting one fertilized egg and then developed in two babies. Therefore, they are sharing the same genetic codes. However, this different from fraternal twins who do not share the same genetic information because they are formed by twoShow MoreRelatedAutism Spectrum Disorder And Genetics1437 Words   |  6 PagesAutism Spectrum Disorder and Genetics ASD stands for Autism Spectrum Disorder and since the early 1900’s; it has been a mystery to many researchers and psychologists. Autism is usually noticed in the first three years of life but there are many theories on which it comes about. 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Report of Current Marketing Issues

Question: Write report on "Current Marketing Issues". Answer: 1. Introduction Ali and Amin (2014) have stated that the customer experience is the practice of designing as well as reacting to the customer interactions for the purpose of meeting as well as exceeding customer expectations, thereby, increasing the customer satisfaction, loyalty as well as advocacy. It can be stated that a positive customer experience is highly important in those customers who are savvy and have the power to choose between the competing companies that offer varying levels of the customer service from poor to the excellent. A recent research work has stated the fact that 80% of the customers would like to pay more for a particular product or service in order to make sure of a superior customer experience. Brocato, Voorhees and Baker (2012) have stated some strong reasons of maintaining proper customer experience in any organizations because positive customer experience enhances the customer satisfaction, fosters repeat customers and the customer loyalty, increases customer advocacy and the referrals. Apart from that, it reduces consumer churn, creates a strong competitive advantage, enlarges revenues and sales as well as constructs stringer customer relationships. Therefore, it can be stated that for any organization, it is required to look at the positive customer experience part, as this is one of the major parts of the enhancement of the business. In order to carry in this specific research work, Perth Painting Company has been selected and the issues of this organization has been shed light on that might affected the customer experience. If the customers are not satisfied with the buying experience, probability is high that they might not like to visit the shop again and this woul d hamper the business of the company in the long-run (Brodie et al., 2012). 2. Company Overview The Perth Painting Company over the past few years has set the bar for all the decorating services across the Western Australia. Through the honest, high quality work, the management of the company has established a string reputation as one of the leading companies Perth has to offer. The range of the services takes into account residential, industrial, commercial, and corporate as well as office painting. The experienced teams of the company are able to tackle all the large jobs as well as any smaller projects. The management of the company provides reliable and professional service that delivers great results. The team assures to deliver best and consistent services to the customers all the time. Moreover, from the company website, it can be seen that regardless of the fact that a company is big or small, Perth Painting tries to take care of all the projects equally. The reputation as one of the leading and best painting company in Perth is a direct result of the hard work they put in place in every work they do (Perth-paintingcompany.com.au, 2016). From the company website, it can be seen that if a company requires giving the company a facelift or wanting to liven up the office, the expert team of the company is present there to provide some affordable services to them. The teams complete their tasks regardless of size and this is one of their best parts in the business. Apart from that, it can be seen that the company take pride in displaying their great workmanship and this help the company to stay competitive in this market. Moreover, the services of the company is extended in such a manner that if one look for either interior or the exterior services, the painters team are always available there to completed the entire job with minimum fuss. Therefore, it can be stated that for quality services, one cannot beat the experience, professionalism and personal attention of the concerned The Perth Painting Company (Perth-paintingcompany.com.au, 2016). 3. Explanation of the current marketing issue from the current research Present day, there exist two types of paint to select from and one is water based paint, most often referred to as the emulsion paint and the other one is solvent based paint. It can be stated that all the solvents are potential to health hazards and even if toxicity varies from the solvent to solvent. It can be stated that the solvents penetrate into the human body and this is one of the major issues that most of the companies face in this industry. Therefore, it can be stated that the manufacturers must recognize ingredients used in the paint formulations and besides that, the manufacturers and the suppliers must develop Material Safety Data Sheets. Therefore, it can be stated that the most discussed issues in the paint industry, particularly in the paint cans are the skinning of the solvent borne paints, skinning of the waterborne paints along with gassing, lumps or the bits, settling issues and gelling paints. In case of the color problems, it can be seen that the issues are wron g to the color card; tinter lumps, poor tinter acceptance and variation from one can to another. It has been seen that the Perth Painting Company has been suffering from the negative customer experience, as the customers are not satisfied with the experience (Gummerus et al., 2012). Already done research work has stated the fact that present day consumers target to purchase the items that has special characteristic trait in order to distinguish from the similar other products of the same or other important purposeful ventures. It can be stated that the Australian economy has struggled to get out of the third gear over much of 2013, but the government is hopeful enough that the economy would finally find fourth gear over the 2014 year. It has been observed that the main culprit that was holding back the economic flow was the election. Most of the businesses and the customers were not prepared to ramp up the spending as well as the investment and the employment, until the election was out of the road. Apart from this issue, it can be stated that the marketing budgets are increasing globally with 84% of the marketers planning to increase or maintain spend in 2015. However, in Australia, budget constraints are top on the list of the pressing issues. However, several survey reports stated the cat that three major global issues are new business development, quality of the leads along with remaining up to date with the present marketing technology and the trends. Besides discussing these global issues, focus must be shed on major pressing issues in Australia and these are budgetary constraints, new business development as well as building proper and deep relationship with the customers. Therefore, it can be stated that the problem faced by the Perth Painting Company Tokunaga s under this category, as the company as well facing some challenges in building proper relationship with the customers (Gustafsson, Kristensson Witell, 2012). The paint industry has been growing rapidly and to stay competitive enough in this market, all the companies need to rely on the innovative technologies. To implement these technologies, the companies are required to have strong budget base and the selected company of this research work has failed to incorporate all the technologies and thus the business has got hampered. The customers in this case prefer to rely on some other companies that are highly innovative and thus the customer experience for this company had got disturbed. Therefore, from the above discussions, the current market issues in the Australian market has been found and the impact of these issued on the Perth Painting Company as well have discussed in details (Krn, 2014). 4. Examples of its application in a commercial setting The major area of discussion of this assignment is related to effective customer based experience development. In the case of painting industry, there are two major issues have affected the customer experience (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). There are mainly two types of paint have been developed by the company Perth paint. They are such as water based paint and emulsion based paint. All these types of solvents use in the paint products have potential threats related to it. As Teixeira et al. (2012) stated that, paint contains solvents and metals, which can harm the health of human beings if they are not disposed of properly. Inappropriate disposal of chemicals in the sewerage system can increase the chance of contamination (Subramanian et al., 2014). Most of the customers are unaware of the potential danger caused due to hazardous paint. The company has not followed the safety procedure implemented by the ISO regulation. As Bowman and Narayandas (2014) mentioned that, the safest and the simplest way to dispose of paint is to use it for its intended purpose. The company should develop a policy that none could use old paint for land filling. Latex paint can be used for land filling if it is less than 10 years old (Tokunaga et al., 2013). The company needs to remove the lid and allow the paint liquid to evaporate. The company needs to develop efficient technology to break the "skin" that forms on the top of the liquid. All these processes are the part of the quality improvement strategy initiated by the organization. There are various reports have been given by the customers about the potential hazards related to the product of Perth painting. The company uses excessive lead in their products, which makes their paint hazardous for health (Sashi, 2012). They should focus on limiting the use of lead materials in their pro ducts. On the other hand, the company has a limited amount of budget needed to be invested in product innovation. As Ryu Lee and Gon (2012) stated that, in the present competitive market, it has become impossible for a company to compete on the basis of price. The company needs to focus on creating product differentiation, which will help it to gain a sustainable position in the market of Australia. They need to invest more on RD, so that the excessive lead used in the paints can be replaced by some other non-toxic elements, without hampering the product quality (Rose et al., 2012). The company can focus on developing some other painting related products such as thinners, roofing tars, turpentine oil and mineral spirits to increase the product differentiation. 5. Explanation of the companys current marketing strategies and Objectives As Luo and Bhattacharya (2013) stated that, customer satisfaction is the most important aspect of business. With the help of customer experience rates and customer satisfaction level a company decides the investment plan for customer experience (Reinartz, Krafft Hoyer, 2014). It has been found that enhanced customer experience can help the company to increase customer satisfaction and enhance customer retention (Luo, Ba Zhang, 2012). It has been found that customers want to buy forms those places, which make them feel good. A company can create an effective customer experience, by providing effective customer services. Making their buying experiences enjoyable and memorable makes customers come back for more purchasing. As Krn (2014) stated that efficient approach to customer handling can increase repeat purchasing behavior of employees. As Gustafsson Kristensson and Witell (2012) mentioned that, presently companies are not able to compete on price. They need to develop product dif ferentiation, in order to gain a competitive advantage in the market (Gummerus et al., 2012). Developing emotional bonding with the customers can help an organization to increase customer loyalty. Now it is required to look at the current marketing strategies adopted by the organization Perth painting. The primary marketing objectives of the company are such as: Improving quality of the product Reducing the product developing time Increasing efficiency of operation Enhancing customers experience Implementation of technology to reduce wastage of time In order to make successful product differentiation, there are three major strategies have been developed by the organization. They are such as the development of customer value, providing perceived value and development of a business model that is hard to copy. Development of customer value The company is focusing on developing on customer differentiation in the perspective customers rather than operational perspective. As Brodie et al., (2012) mentioned that, this strategy helps the company to reduce cost, enhancing performance and satisfying the unfulfilled needs of customers. Providing perceived value The company is focusing on developing an effective communication strategy to provide the perceived value to their customers. As Brocato Voorhees and Baker (2012) stated that, it helps to improve the brand image of the company. Development of a business model that is hard to copy The company has developed a differentiation strategy, which is difficult to copy by other organization. As Ali and Amin (2014) stated that, changing the business operation procedure frequently makes it difficult for other companies to replicate those strategies. It has been found that the company has adopted five effective marketing strategies to enhance customer experience for the organization (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). These marketing strategies are mentioned below: 1) 3D customer experience 2) Taking care of all the touch points to improve customer experience 3) Develop products and services in accordance with the customer needs 4) Enhancing relationship with individual customers rather than brand or a company 5) Implementation of enhanced technologies to improve customer experience However, it has been found that the company is not highly successful to implement this strategy effectively in its workplace due to some internal and external barriers (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). These barriers are mentioned below: a) The company is not able to implement innovation in its services. It has been found that the customer experience innovation model used by the company Perth painting is highly dependent on the competitors marketing strategy (Ali Amin, 2014). It has been found that, copying the competitors has high risk related to it. Using marketing strategy of other companies makes it difficult for the company to improve its product quality after a certain level. b) The company is not able to implement technology effectively in employee- customer interaction. As Brocato Voorhees and Baker (2012) mentioned that, the main issue related to the company is that it does not use technology in accordance to the needs of customers. 6. Explaining how this can be implemented by the company In this section, it has been discussed how the company Perth Painting has implemented those marketing strategies. 3D customer experience The company has perused three imperatives for enhancing customer experience simultaneously. They are such as developing experience focused value proposition. As Bowman and Narayandas (2014) stated that, the company has divided its customers into various stages. Depending on the segmentation, the company tailors its customer experience. Secondly, the company has developed cross-functional collaboration to provide a value proposition. For, example the company has developed its supply chain in line with customer experience. The customer service team of the company is always ready to help their customers for painting and provide effective advice on color and product selection (Ali Amin, 2014). The business operation of the company is developed in such a way that the company can provide superior customer service again and again. Taking care of all the touch points to improve customer experience The company is focusing on improving every aspect related to its business operation to improve customer experience. They are such as quality product development, enhancing brand image, advancement of transaction and interaction and customer's cross-channel exposure (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). Develop products and services in accordance with the customer needs The company has provided a range of services to their customers that include residential services, brick painting, specialty decorative finishes, stripping of old paints and sealing (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). The company has involved experts in all the service sectors in providing best customer service. The company has divided its services and products in accordance to the needs of customer segmentation. The company provides both commercial and industrial painting facility (Ali Amin, 2014). It has been found that the company has right equipment and infrastructures to complete big projects within a shorter period. Enhancing relationship with individual customers rather than brand or a company The management team of Perth painting is highly focused on delivering personal relationship or connection with its customers. As Teixeira et al. (2012) mentioned that, it is an important aspect of a company to listen to all the quarries and advice given by the customer. The company has taken the initiative to gather feedback from the customers. Implementation of enhanced technologies to improve customer experience The company has adopted computer technology to keep the track of their customer responses. Perth painting has also involved itself in the social media websites to develop effective communication with their customers (Teixeira et al., 2012). The company uses online survey technique, web analytics, and tracking tool to measure the level of engagement of consumers. 7. The advantages and the disadvantages of applying current marketing issue to the business As Brodie et al. (2012) stated that, customer oriented marketing is the method of developing a strong customer base. As Teixeira et al. (2012) mentioned that, with the help of customer based marketing a company is able to interact directly with its customers and meet their needs. There are various advantages of this marketing issue that the company is able to gather in its business. These advantages are mentioned below: Increasing profit The company Perth painting is able to develop its customers demographic appropriately. The company provides both commercial and industrial painting services. As the company has an established set of customer demography, the company is able to focus on its advertising efforts. As Brodie et al. (2012) stated that, meeting all the expectation and demand of each set of customers help the company to gain a higher amount of profit. Reducing the cost of advertising The company already knows the high-end and middle-end segment of customers are more interested towards its products due to high quality and high price. It helps the company to save extra investment on advertising. For example, the company sends email or SMS to their target customers to acknowledge them about any new product or offers available on existing products. It helps them to create a strong relationship with their customers without spending extra money on advertising (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). Word-of-mouth marketing The customers, who are satisfied with the products and services are given by the company Perth painting, recommend their friends and family members to use their painting products in their houses (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). It will increase customer awareness about their business. As Ali and Amin (2014) mentioned that meeting the demands of customers on a regular basis and developing a positive relationship with customers will increase the effectiveness of word-of-mouth marketing. It will also give the company the chance to analyze the present business trend of the customers (Teixeira et al., 2012). There are various disadvantages that the company has to face while making a customer-centric approach. They are also mentioned below: There is a possibility to miss out a segment of customer As Teixeira et al. (2012) argued that, customer relationship marketing is mainly focused on customers who are already purchasing goods from the company. There is a huge possibility that the company can miss out a segment of interested customers. For example, the company has already perceived that the high-end and middle-level customers are only attracted towards their products due to their high quality of products (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). The company needs to provide effort on developing products for low-end customers. As Brodie et al., (2012) stated that, limited market efforts retract business expansion of a company. There is a possibility of over-advertise Most often it has been found that companies provide more than an extra effort on advertising. As Teixeira et al. (2012) stated that, instead of sending weekly email and SMS, the company needs to develop a monthly newsletter to let their customers know about the existing offers, product, and services available for this month. 8. Recommendations After going through the issues faced by the company in the existing market, it is required to discuss some effective recommendations in this part that might help the company to deal with the addressed situations carefully. It has already been seen that used materials in the paint are often hazardous and thus at the time of using this, the painters are required to be more careful. The best and the mostly used method of painting are to spray, using compressed air and for the purpose, a high velocity airless spray or an electrostatic applicator is used. To avoid any kind of health hazard due to spray, the company is required to shift their focus on some innovative ideas. With the course of time and advancement with technology, the painting industry has been expanding. However, it has been seen that the Perth Painting Company failed to satisfy the needs and the requirements of the customers all the time and this has hampered the company business to some extent. Therefore, the company must focus on innovation for staying competitive enough in the market. Other than following the business model of some other companies in the market, the company is advised to look at their own business model. The business model of one company might not fit in other company and this states the fact that the every company must focus on their own business model considering their nature of the business. Product differentiation is one of the major recommendations that can be given to the management of the company, as this might help the company to gain a strong market share in the company. The interior and the exterior decorations are largely changing and the innovative as well as attractive designs drag the attention of the customers. Therefore, the company is required to focus on that particular group that would be potential enough to bring noticeable changes to the overall designs. The advertising activities of the Perth Painting company are required to revise in order to get the attention of the customers. It has been seen that the marketing team of the company send the promotional messages to the customers every week and thus the customers do not get this advertising interesting enough. Therefore, it can be stated that the marketing team must arrange the promotional activities in a monthly manner, where the details of the products, the discounts, new products, best available services and some other useful details would be provided. This would help the company to get the attention of the customers separately and thus this type of advertising can be recommended to the company. One of the best ways to provide the customers best service is to analyze the feedback of the customers. Received feedbacks from the customers are required to analyze properly and this would help to analyze the requirements of the customers, their demands, preferences and trends. Therefore, it can be stated that the marketing and the management team mutually are required to focus on this part carefully. 9. Providing implementation schedule After providing the necessary recommendations to the company, in this part is required to design an implementation schedule in this part. This is a step by step process that is useful enough to gain proper competitive advantage in the market. In the first stage, it is required to develop the marketing plan for the company; which would help the company to expand in the existing market. Initially, it has been seen that the company has targeted the high and the high to middle income group customers in the society. This helped the company to earn revenue from limited projects. However, it can be stated that in order to stay competitive in the market, the company must shift their target customers to the middle to low income groups (Bowman Narayandas, 2014). It is no doubt to say that the numbers of customers in this group are always high and if the company targets them, they must revise their existing pricing strategy. Comparative low prices of the products would help the company to reach wider section of population in a short time and this would enhance the companys business growth. Proper and effective communication with these target people is required to make from the marketing team of the company to spread the business. T herefore, it can be stated that the shift in the target market helps the company to revise their existing market position (Gergely et al., 2014). In order to do that, it can be stated that the marketing and the management team of the company is required to develop an integrated media platform, which would help the company to spread. Proper advertising, social media campaigning, distributing leaflets, displaying eye-catching hoardings and brand endorsing are some of the well-accepted marketing activities that Perth Painting Company can rely on. Promotions through these effective and powerful channels are expected to help the company to reach the target market (Reinartz, Krafft Hoyer, 2014). In the next stage, it can be stated that the company must improve the customer service, as maintaining proper customer relationship largely decides the sustainability of the corporation. Initially the company is required to analyze the feedback of the existing customers and based on their feedback, the company is required to take the further steps (Fall et al., 2014). The marketing team is advised to focus on arranging promotional offers for the customers, who would take the service of the company for the first time. Additional benefits to the first time users and discounts on the services of the existing users might help the company to get the attention of large number of customers. With the course of time, marketing through social media has become one of the strong means to reach wide section of population in a short time and thus this part is required to shed light on (Prez et al., 2013). The entire process is required to implement on an urgent basis and monitor that regularly. Distributing questionnaire related to the customer satisfaction is necessary to get the feedbacks from the customers. Analyzing the reports might help the company to either modify or stick to the existing policies. Apart from that, the sales department of the Perth Painting Company must look at their revenue. If the margin rises, it can be understood that the strategies are working and if not, the company needs to revise the policy on an urgent basis. Thus the implementation schedule can be prepared (Luo Bhattacharya, 2012). 10. Conclusion After conduction of the entire research work, it can be stated that customer experience is one of the major parts for sustainability of any business. If the customers are not satisfied with the buying experience, they might not rely on that company further. Therefore, the customers are one of the strong pillars of any business. It has been seen that the Perth Painting Company was suffering from poor customer experience and this has been analyzed here in details. For dealing with the situation carefully, some effective recommendations have been provided here and it has been expected that the company would be able to revise the situation on an early basis. Therefore, maintaining positive customer experience in the present days strong competitive market is important enough. Moreover, it can be stated that positive customer experience contributes in referrals and these are often quicker with closing sales and less complicated or demanding consumers. References Ali, F., Amin, M. (2014). The influence of physical environment on emotions, customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions in Chinese resort hotel industry.Journal for Global Business Advancement,7(3), pp.249-266. Armstrong, G., Adam, S., Denize, S., Kotler, P. (2014).Principles of marketing. Pearson Australia. Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen, S. (2013). Consumer-company identification: A framework for understanding consumers relationships with companies.Journal of marketing,67(2), pp.76-88. Bowman, D., Narayandas, D. (2014). Linking customer management effort to customer profitability in business markets.Journal of Marketing Research,41(4), pp.433-447. Brocato, E. D., Voorhees, C. 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(2014).Consumer Behaviour (RLE Consumer Behaviour): A Practical Guide(Vol. 3). Routledge. Gao, L., Bai, X. (2014). Online consumer behaviour and its relationship to website atmospheric induced flow: Insights into online travel agencies in China.Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,21(4), pp.653-665. Gergely, A., Bertti, I., Trk, T., Pfeifer, ., Klmn, E. (2013). Corrosion protection with zinc-rich epoxy paint coatings embedded with various amounts of highly dispersed polypyrrole-deposited alumina monohydrate particles.Progress in Organic Coatings,76(1), pp.17-32. Gottesfeld, P., Kuepouo, G., Tetsopgang, S., Durand, K. (2013). Lead concentrations and labeling of new paint.Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene,10(5), pp.243-249. Gummerus, J., Liljander, V., Weman, E., Pihlstrm, M. (2012). Customer engagement in a Facebook brand community.Management Research Review,35(9), pp.857-877. Gustafsson, A., Kristensson, P., Witell, L. (2012). 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Specal Ed Observation Essay Example For Students

Specal Ed Observation Essay Special Education Visitation For my visitation I went to the public high school in my hometown of Vineland, NJ. Due to time constraints I was not able to visit the school on a weekday when classes were in session. I did however get to witness another part of the special education/inclusion program called the Rooster Buddies. I did, however, get some information on the special education program from an administrator via phone and fax. The special education program at Vineland High School (VHS) is only seven years old. VHS is on a seven-period day, and the Severely Handicapped (SH), Special Day Class (SDC), and Resource Special Program (RSP) teachers are only assigned students two or three periods. The majority of students are only enrolled in a Special Education class one or two periods, depending upon their individual need. The breakdown of each individual section of the special education program at VHS looks like this: SH 10 Students 1 Teacher 1 Aide SDC 30 Students 2 Teachers 2 Aides RSP 50 Students 2 Teachers 1 Aide The administrator that I spoke to wrote in a fax the Special Education classes are transitioning into study skills classes so the teacher can provide additional help and support for the student to succeed in the regular class environment. During the four or five periods, when the teachers and instructional aides do not have students assigned to them, they are providing support for their students in the regular education classroom. The level of support is directly related to two factors: 1) What the student needs to be successful. 2) What the teacher needs to help the student succeed. We will write a custom essay on Specal Ed Observation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now So the support provided by the teacher may be provided daily in the regular education classroom, in the form of helping the student take notes, monitoring behavior, doing a lab activity, etc. The support may also take the form of weekly program checks with the regular education teacher, modifying and/or adopting curriculum, or teachers meeting informally to talk. As I mentioned before, I didnt get to actually sit in on a class but the weekend that I was home the Rooster Buddies were holding a fund-raiser. At the annual City Series basketball game between my alma-mater Sacred Heart and VHS the Rooster Buddies were selling an assortment of baked goods. The Rooster Buddies is a student club that was started with the intent of helping students with severe disabilities make the adjustment from a self contained classroom in a county special education school to the relatively unstructured experience of a large high school. VHS has over 4,000 students. There are more than 75 non-handicapped students in the club and they work with over 30 students who have disabilities ranging from severe physical handicaps to students with learning disabilities. At the game there were about 15 students without obvious handicaps and 4 students with visible physical handicaps. Since I was not with the administrator at the game I was unable to determine just how many of the seemingly normal students were non-handicapped. From what I saw, the students seemed to work well with each other and actually they were pretty efficient. At halftime they were really swamped by fans and they worked well. The physically handicapped students werent just ornaments. They actively participated, as much as they could. One of the students, Alex Ill call him, was apparently paralyzed from the waist down. He had full use of his upper body and was one of two kids taking money. Another student in a wheelchair, who appeared to be afflicted with a more serious handicap (perhaps a form of cerebral palsy) was using the tray on his chair as a table displaying various cookies. The purpose of the bake sale was to raise money for a trip to a local amusement park. I thought that this was a good way to entice non-handicapped students to participate in the program. .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .postImageUrl , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:hover , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:visited , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:active { border:0!important; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:active , .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977 .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6cd7433866b453a020a55fd949027977:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Personal Story - A Fighting Chance Essay Another thing that I noticed that I found encouraging was the fact that the students with handicaps were into the game, as fans. Up until about two minutes before halftime and then again two minutes into the third quarter the physically handicapped students found their way out into the gym and watched the game from right near the student section. They were cheering just .

Social Psychology and Symbolism essays

Social Psychology and Symbolism essays Social psychology according to Gordon Allport is the attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual imagined or implied presence of others.(Allport as cited in Hewitt 2000;3) Sociologists are concerned with social psychology in how organized social life is possible, how it works and how it evolves over time. Whereas psychologists are focused on how individuals learn and what they learn, sociologists are concerned with socialization and how groups and organizations adapt to the environment as well as how environments adapt to groups and organizations. In a sense, how we create society and how society creates us. The sociological aspect of social psychology focuses on what transpires between people rather then within people. Symbolic interaction focuses on how meaning emerges from interaction. We gain meaning by how we act and the purpose of that action. In order to act or react in regard to an action, we have to first interpret that action. So without our interpretation of an action, an action has no meaning. Social acts depend On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the United States by flying two planes into the World Trade Center in New York and another plane into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. . Inhumane action disrupted our world as we knew it. This action not only took thousands of innocent lives, but also affected our everyday daily routine. All air travel ceased, thousands were left stranded, the city shut down as even the stock market closed. The United States was left in shock and disbelief. The world which we knew as safe was Why did the terrorists choose the buildings which they did? They chose buildings that represent certain things to our society. T ...

Sustainable Supply Chains Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sustainable Supply Chains - Research Paper Example A more comprehensive definition of sustainability encompasses all three foundations of sustainability, including the people, economy and the environment. If only the social and environmental development is taking place that is referred to as â€Å"bearable† (Chick and Micklethwaite). If only the social and economic development is taking place, that is referred to as â€Å"equitable†, whereas, if only the environmental and economic development takes places, that is referred to as â€Å"viable† (Chick and Micklethwaite). Sustainability occurs only when all three dimensions develop simultaneously; that is, it is bearable, equitable and viable. A significant driver of this initiative is the government. The government can come up with measures such as environmental labels, licenses and product design guidelines (New Zealand Council for Sustainable Development). There are already a number of regulations in place for sustainability. These include U.S. Farm security and rural investment act (2002), European Union’s Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), China ROHS, E.U. Cosmetics directive, E.U. Packaging Directive, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and REACH. In addition there are International Standards such as WRAP, FLA, ICTI CARE, ISO 14000 and ISO 26000 for addressing environmental causes (Business for Social Responsibility). For successfully realizing a sustainable supply chain, an organization needs to go through five major steps. The first if Business Case Development which requires looking at the external environment and study case studies of companies which have done so successfully in the past. An analysis should be done of the differences before and after this implementation (United Nations Global Impact). These initiatives have to be driven by the top management. After this study a commitment has to be made by the board members to work on the same. The second is â€Å"Risk, Gap and Scope assessment† wh ich appreciates the fact that the sustainable supply chain initiative has a number of risks which could have a short term impact on finances or new operational bottlenecks. These risks have to be listed and mitigation plans have to be developed. A gap analysis between the current state and future state is required so that efforts could be made to bridge the gap. It is also essential to decide the scope of the initiative at this stage in line with organizational strategies and priorities (United Nations Global Impact). The third step is Supply chain identification which requires an internal assessment of the firm’s supply chain. The position that the company’s supply chain holds relative to other supply chains needs to be assessed (New Zealand Council for Sustainable Development). The next step is Implementation. In this step, the expectations of the organization are communicated to suppliers, distributors and all other partners in the upstream and downstream supply cha ins. Internal operations are realigned to adjust to the new priorities. The organizations try to build strategic partnerships if required to realize its goals. These may include partnerships with third party logistic providers, IT outsourcing firms, consultants and so on (Nunes, Junior and Ramos). Next, Measurement is done whereby new metrics have to be introduced to track performance on

Railway shipment of hazardous cargo, Safety, and homeland security Essay

Railway shipment of hazardous cargo, Safety, and homeland security - Essay Example The law provided various guidelines on packaging and operational rules safeguarding the shipment of such commodities using the railway line (Downey, 2014). After the 1975 Act, various laws and bills have been adopted to control the conveyance accorded to hazardous products within the country. Through these improvements, there has been reduced number of accidents and spillage of dangerous materials and gases into the atmosphere. These transportations of the materials through railway line are gradually improving and in the future, there will be limited or no cases of accidents or destruction of property through this form of transport. The United States Railway system is used for moving various types of hazardous cargo across the country. The system is responsible for transporting toxic gas cargos across the state. Twenty percent of all of the gases transported in the country are done through the railway system. According to Spraggins (2015), this percentage is equivalent to 1.7 million carloads of toxic gases moved by rail. The perfect example of gas transported by rail is chlorine, which is essential for both the public health and major private laboratories. In addition, chlorine is necessary for purifying water. Due to its importance and its hazardous nature, twenty-two percent of chlorine is transported through railways (Spraggins 2015). It translates to 35000 carloads of chlorine annually. In addition, the railway system is utilised for freight of crude oil across the country. Approximately millions of gallons of highly flammable oil are hauled by rail to various destinations in the country. Reports and statistics by the American Association of roads in 2009 indicated that there were 9500 railcars that moved across the country in 2008 carrying crude oil (Mark, Seely, & Barrett, 2006). The high number crude of oil moved was because of its use

Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins

Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins This chapter is devoted to the CLT approach, its origins and major features. Also the chapter sheds the light on grammar, how it is handled in language teaching, the way it is defined and lastly, and perhaps most importantly, its role in CLT. 3.1 Communicative Language Teaching CLT is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages or simply the communicative approach. 3.1.1 The Origins Educators such as Richards and Rodgers, Savignon, and Sano state that the origins of communicative language teaching are many, in so far as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. Sano (1984:171) says that the communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation method of foreign language instruction. Richards and Rodgers (1986:93), on the other hand, claim that the origins of CLT are to be found in the changes of situational language teaching approaches, which influenced the British language teaching tradition till the late 1960s. 29 Meanwhile, Savignon (1991:262) asserts that the emergence of CLT can be traced to concurrent developments on both sides of the Atlantic, i.e., in Europe and the United States. Educators and linguists e.g., Candlin (1981: 121) and Widdowson (1978: 61) saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language in those methods, i.e., situational language teaching, audio-lingual or grammar-translation method. Students did not know how to communicate using appropriate social languages, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at loss to communicate in the cultures of the language studied. In respect of this point, Widdowson remarks the following: The problem is that students, and especially students in developing countries, who have received several years of formal English teaching, frequently remain deficient in the ability to actually use the language, and to understand its use, in normal communication, whether in spoken or written mode (1972:15). Similarly, Howatt says that the original motivation for adopting a communicative approach in the early seventies was remedial, an attempt to overcome the inadequacies of existing, structural syllabuses, materials, and methods (1984:287). To put simply, the rapid application of these ideas by textbook writers; and the equally rapid acceptance of these new principles by British language teaching specialists, curriculum development centers, and even governments gave prominence nationally and internationally to what came to be referred to as communicative approach. There was a positive response from linguists, methodologists, and classroom teachers offering the best hope for the elaboration and diffusion of language teaching methods and materials that work, encourage and support learners in the development of their communicative competence (Savignon, 1991: 264). Although the movement began as largely British innovations focusing on alternative conceptions of a syllabus since the mid 1970s, the scope of communicative language teaching has expanded. Interest in and the development of communicative style teaching mushroomed in those years; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular. Also, numerous textbooks for teachers and teacher trainers expound on the nature of communicative approaches and offer techniques for varying ages and purposes (Brown, 1994: 217). It is this socio-linguistic perspective, which is the unifying principle and the driving force behind a communicative approach to language teaching (Sano, 1984: 174) Although this socio-linguistic approach is basically a language theory rather than a learning theory, taking into account Richards and Rodgers definition of approach, CLT encompasses a theory of language and a theory of language learning, and see it as an approach than a method. Briefly, they define an approach as a set of theories about the nature of language and of language learning. It is axiomatic, as it takes a number of assumptions as a starting point. A method, on the other hand, is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented. Besides, these writers claim, at the level of language theory, CLT has a rich, if somewhat eclectic theoretical base (1986:102). 3.1.2 Language Theory The rise of interest in the individual and in relationships among individuals, which characterized the sixties, marked the emergence of socio-linguistics, that branch of science where sociology and linguistics meet. A new light was shed on language, not simply as a system of structurally related elements, which form a rule, but as a vehicle for the expression of meaning and social interaction. In other words, the structural view was supplemented with a functional, a semantic and interactional view. It was this idea of language as communication that started off the whole communicative movement (Savignon, 1991: 266). And it was Hymes (1972) that made history by challenging Chomskys view on linguistic competence, and replacing it by the notion of communicative competence (cited in Savignon, 1991: 269). In the words of Canale and Swain (1980:7) communicative competence refers to the interaction between grammatical competence, or knowledge of the rules of grammar, and socio-linguistic competence, or knowledge of the rules of language use. In other words, rules of use and rules of usage are complementary and not mutually exclusive. According to them; the primary goal of a communicative approach must be to facilitate the integration of these two types of knowledge for the learner (1980: 25). Savignon notes that communicative competence characterizes the ability of language learners to interact with other speakers to make meaning, and [it] is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved (1983:9). Broadly speaking, communicative competence is an aspect convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. According to the socio-linguistic theory, the act of communication is seen not as basically an exchange of linguistic messages, but rather as a social phenomenon in which the use of language plays a part. In the field of the ethnography of communication, which Stern (1983:220) defines as the study of the individuals communicative activity in its social setting. language is a sub-ordinate, yet integrated part of social and situational systems, which are actually behavior patterns. Halliday argues the existence of a semantic network which is the linguistic realization of patterns of behavior. He postulates that the more we are able to relate the options in grammatical system to meaning potential in social contexts and behavioral settings, the more insight we shall gain into the nature of the language system (1978:44). In his functional account of language use, Halliday has criticized Chomskys linguistic, theory of competence. He says Linguistics is concerned with the description of speech acts or texts, since only through the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore all components of meaning, brought into focus (1970:145). This view complements Hymes opinion of communicative competence, and we can only understand language if we view it as an instrument or as a communicative tool. To which Widdowson (1979:50) adds that once we accept the need to teach language as communication, we can obviously no longer think of language in te rms only of sentences. This statement provides the justification for the emphasis on discourse in CLT. 3.1.3 Learning Theory In contrast to the amount that has been written in CLT literature about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory. However, two of the general learning theories, which emphasize common features among learners, are cognitive theory and skills theory. 3.1.3.1 Cognitive Theory According to cognitive theory, learning involves the ability to understand, to anticipate, and to relate new information to pre-existing mental structures. This focus on meaningful learning is derived from an attempt to make sense of the world. The heavy reliance of CLT practitioners on the mental schema theory is exemplified by Brumfits statement that new learning must be closely assimilated with what is already known, and if language is being learnt for use, then new learning must be directly associated with use (1979:189). Hence, at the level of learning theory this view supports Hallidays claim about the semantic network as a bridge between linguistic form and behaviour pattern, a link between words and the world. As Stern (1983:261) posits The learner must become a participant in a real-life context of language use as a condition of effective learning. Macdonough (1981:27) describes the cognitive process as hypothesis testing, and adds, significantly, that rules can only be found if the risk of error is run (ibid: 29). This view is reflected in the great tolerance of CLT towards errors. Errors are not to be avoided at all cost; they are not to be seen as evidence of non-learning, but being an external manifestation of the continual revision of the inter-language system. They are essential elements in the learning process. 3.1.3.2 Skills Theory This theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive learning and practice. However, advocates of this theory reject mechanical practice altogether as being totally irrelevant to genuine learning. Skills theory links mental and behavioural aspects of performance through a hierarchically organized set of plans, in which low level of automation is necessary to free attention for high level of planning. In this regard, Littlewood states the following: The cognitive aspect involves the internalization of plans for Creating appropriate behaviour. For language use, these plans derive mainly from the language system they include grammatical rules, procedures for selecting vocabulary, and social conventions governing speech. The behavioural aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into performance (1984:74). Skill practice is considered as a legitimate learning principle (Richards and Rodgers 1986), provided that it offers natural options of language use which reproduce the kinds of choice that occur in spontaneous communication (Stern 1983:260). 3.1.4 Major Features CLT is, relatively, a newly adapted approach in the area of foreign/second language teaching. CLT is a hybrid approach to language teaching, essentially progressive rather than traditional. (Wright 2000: 7). CLT can be seen to derive from a multidisciplinary perspective that includes, at least, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology and educational research (Savignon 1991:271). It is generally accepted that, proponents of CLT see it as an approach, not a method (See Richards and Rodgers 1986; Savignon 1991; Brown 1994). For Brown, for instance, [Communicative language teaching] is a unified but broadly- based theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching(1994: 244-245). He further maintains that though it is difficult to synthesize all of the various definitions that have been offered, the following four interconnected characteristics could be taken as a definition of CLT: 1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence. 2. Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes. 3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. 4. In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts (Brown, 1994: 245). The communicative approach is a hazy concept, which can have a variety of meanings along the continuum between a strong version and a weak one. Johnson (1979: 155) argues that the weak version attempts to integrate communicative activities into an existing programme, where as the strong version claims that language is acquired through communication. According to Howatt (1984: 279) the weak version, which became more or less the standard practice in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century, stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. As for the strong version of communicative teaching it advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. If the former could be described as learning to use English, the latter entails using English to learn it (ibid). Howatt adds that creating information gap activities, games, role-plays, dramas, simulations etc., are some of the exercise types in the weak versions of CLT. Although we have different versions and various ways in which CLT is interpreted and applied, educators in the area, Richards and Rodgers (1986, 2001); Littlewood (1981); Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983); Brumfit (1984); Candlin (1981); Widdowson (1978, 1979); Johnson and Morrow (1981);; Larsen-Freeman (1986); Celce- Murcia (1991b) and Johnson (1982), put some of the major characteristics of CLT as they are presented in the following subsections. 3.1.4.1 Emphasis on Language Function It is felt that students need knowledge of the linguistic form, meaning and functions. However, CLT gives primary importance to the use or function of the language and secondary importance to its structure or form (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 88; Johnson 1982:63). This does not mean that knowledge of grammar is not essential for effective communication, rather systematic treatment of both functions and forms is vital. Stressing on this, Littlewood says one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language (1981: 1). CLT suggests that grammatical structure might better be subsumed under various functional categorieswe pay considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules than we traditionally did (Brown, 1994: 245). Emphasis is also given to meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure). For Finocchiaro and Brumfit meaning is paramount (1983:91) since it helps the learners to manage the message they engage with the interlocutors. 3.1.4.2 Fluency and Accuracy Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques (Brown, 1994:245). However, at times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy because fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal (Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983:93) and accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in contexts. Fluency is emphasized over accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. It is important, however, that fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication. And much more spontaneity is present in communicative classrooms (Brown, 1994: 246) 3.1.4.3 Teaching Techniques Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Classrooms should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role plays, simulations, dramas, games, projects, etc., is the major activities which can help the learner provide spontaneity and improvisation, not just repetition and drills. Another characteristic of the classroom process is the use of authentic materials because it is felt desirable to give students the opportunity to develop the strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers. In the classroom, everything is done with a communicative intent. Information gap, choice and feedback are thought to be truly communicative activities (Johnson and Morrow, 1981: 25). 3.1.4.4 Grammar Teaching Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways along side more innovative approaches. Savignon (2002:5) says for the development of communicative ability [communication depends on grammar], research findings overwhelmingly support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning-focused experience. Grammar is important; and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. Disregard of grammar will virtually guarantee breakdown in communication (Thompson, 1996: 10). These writers also say that there are some misconceptions about CLT that makes difficult for many teachers to see clearly what is happening and to identify the useful innovations that CLT has brought. One of the persistent misconceptions is that CLT means not teaching grammar although the exclusion of explicit attention to grammar was never necessary part of CLT (ibid). In CLT involvement in communicative event is seen as central to language development, and this involvement necessarily requires attention to form (structure). In fact, it is certainly understandable that there was a reaction against the heavy emphasis on structure at the expense of natural communication. Nonetheless, it would seem foolish to make mistakes on the side of using communicative approach exclusively and totally disregard grammar teaching. Regarding this, Celce-Murcia comments: In spite of the intuitive appeal and the anecdotal evidence Supporting proposal for exclusively communicative language teaching, there is equally appealing and anecdotal evidence that grammarless approach. can lead to the development of a broken, ungrammatical, pidgenized form of the target language beyond which students rarely progress (1991a:462). Savignon also remarks that, communicative language teaching does not necessarily mean the rejection of familiar materials [grammar](2002:7). Rivers in her famous statement strengthened Savignons remark in that Saying that we do not need to teach grammar is like saying that we can have a chicken walking around without bones (cited in Arnold, 1994: 122). Nowadays, it seems that educators accept that an appropriate amount of class time should be devoted to grammar, but this does not mean a simple return to a traditional treatment of rules. Rather the focus has now moved away from the teacher covering to the learners discovering grammar (Thompson, 1996: 11). 3.1.4.5 Skills and Activities Communicative approach is not limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils confidence in all four skills areas. Students work on all four skills from the beginning, i.e., a given activity might involve reading, speaking, listening, and perhaps also writing (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 78). Of course, oral communication is seen to take place through negotiation between speaker(s) and listener(s) (most likely among students), so too is the interaction between the reader and writer, but with no immediate feedback from the reader. Hence, in the classroom, emphasis is given to oral and listening skills, as contact time with language is important. It paves way for more fluid command of the language. Learners do not hear the teacher all the time, but having personal contact themselves, practicing sounds themselves, working on the permutation of sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so. The idea of emphasizing the oral skills creates uncertainty among teachers. They misconceived CLT as if it were devoted to teaching only speaking. But, CLT is not exclusively concerned with face to face oral communication (Savignon, 2002:7). The principles of CLT apply equally to reading and writing activities that engage readers and writers in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning. In other words, it is important to recognize that it is not only the speaker (or writer) who is communicating. Instead, communication through language happens in both the written and spoken medium, and involves at least two people. Thompson (1996:13) further states that, though there is a complaint that CLT ignores written language, a glance at recent mainstream textbooks shows that reading and writing materials have been given attention too. 3.1.4.6 Pair Work and Group Work Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and if necessary to negotiate) meaning in situations where one person has information that others lack (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 82). More emphasis should be given to active modes of learning such as pair or group work in problem-solving tasks in order to maximize the time allotted to each student for learning to negotiate meaning. Many people assume group/pair work is applicable in all contexts. However, classroom group and/or pair work should not be considered an essential feature used all the time, and may well be inappropriate in some contexts (ibid). Thompson (1996:12) and Savignon (2002: 6) claim that group and/or pair work are flexible and useful techniques than that suggests, and they are active modes of learning which can help the learners to negotiate meaning and engage in problem-solving activities. The use of pair/group work is a physical signal of some degree of control and choice passing to the learners; but that needs to be complemented by real choice (learners need to be given some degree of control over their learning). Therefore, the use of pair/group work needs to be complemented by real choice for the following reasons: (1) they can provide the learners with a relatively safe opportunity to try out ideas before launching them in public; (2)they can lead to more developed ideas, and therefore greater confidence and more effective communication; (3) they can also provide knowledge and skills which may complement those of their partners which in turn lead to greater success in undertaking tasks (Thompson, 1996:13). 3.1.4.7 Errors and Correction Errors are seen as a natural outcome of the development of the communication skills and are therefore tolerated. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction noted by the teacher should be discreet. Let the students talk and express themselves and the form of the language becomes secondary. If errors of form are tolerated and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills, students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 121). 3.1.4.8 Evaluation Sano (1984: 176) states that evaluation is carried out in terms of fluency and accuracy. Students who have the most control of the structures and vocabulary are not necessarily the best communicators. A teacher may use formal evaluation i.e., he/she is likely to use a communicative test, which is an integrative and has a real communicative function (e.g., Madsen, 1983; Hughes, 1989). Larsen-Freeman (1986: 132) points out that the teacher can also informally evaluate his students performance in his role as an advisor or co-communicator. Savigonon, (1991: 275: ; 2002: 4) reports that the communicative approach follows global, qualitative evaluation of learner achievement as opposed to quantitative assessment of discrete linguistic features. 3.1.4.9 Native Language Use The students native language has no role to play (Larsen Freeman, 1986: 135). The target language is used both during communicative activities and for the purpose of classroom management. The students learn from these classroom management exchanges, and realize that the target language is a vehicle for communication. Whatever the case may be, the teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 8). However, for others (e.g., Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983: 98) judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. Teachers may provide directions of homework, class work and test directions by using the native language. 3.1.4.10 Teachers Role The teacher is the facilitator of students learning, manager of classroom activities, advisor during activities and a co-communicator engaged in the communicative activity along with the students (Littlewood, 1981: 9; Breen and Candlin, 1980: 90). But he does not always himself interact with students; rather he acts as an independent participant. Other roles assumed for the teacher are needs analyst, counselor, researcher and learner. Students, on the other hand, are more responsible managers of their own learning. They are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in the writings. They are communicators and actively engaged in negotiating meaning in trying to make themselves understood. They learn to communicate by communicating (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 142). Above all, since the teachers role is less dominant; the teaching/learning process is student-centered rather than teacher-centered. In other words, it is the learner who plays a great role in a large proportion of the process of learning. 3.2 Grammar and Grammars Yule (1996: 87) states that each adult speaker of a language clearly has some type of mental grammar, that is, a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. This grammar is subconscious and is not the result of any teaching. A second, and quite different, concept of grammar involves what might be considered linguistic etiquette, that is, the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. A third view of grammar involves the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, usually with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, for example, as distinct from the grammar of other languages. Linguists define grammar as a set of components: phonetics (the production and perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (the study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning. Because all languages are characterized by these components, by definition, language does not exist without grammar (VanPatten, 1990:288). However, grammar has not always been defined in these terms. Originally, the term grammar, grammatica, referred to the art of writing, as compared to rhetoric, rettorica, the art of speaking. As used today by many teachers and learners, grammar is loosely understood to be a set of rules that govern language, primarily its morphology and syntax. But morphology and syntax are only two components of grammar (Chamot Kupper, 1989: 15). Actually the word grammar has been defined rather differently by various grammarians and dictionary writers. According to Crystal (2003:207), grammar is systematic description of a language. Also, Widdowson describes that grammar is the name given to the knowledge of how words are adapted and arranged to form sentences (1988: 147; cited in Shih-Chuan Chang, 2011: 14). Still other definitions of the term specify the scope of grammar. In fact, grammar is multi-dimensional (Kennedy, 1987: 165) and has multi-meanings. It is generally thought to be a set of rules for choosing words and putting words together to make sense. Every language has grammar. It has been held that if a language is a building, the words are bricks and the grammar is the architects plan. One may have a million bricks, but do not make a building without a plan. Similarly, if a person knows a million English words, but he doesnt know how to put them together, then he cannot speak English (Karavas, 1996: 189). In other words, grammar is a framework to describe languages. 3.2.1 Grammar in Language Teaching The role of grammar is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in language teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential part of language instruction, so much that other aspects of language learning were either ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if one knew the grammatical rules of the language, he would be able to use it for communication. This concept was strongly challenged in the early 1970s (Ellis, 2006: 90). Knowledge of the grammatical system of the language, it was argued, was but one of the many components which underlay the notion of communicative competence. To be considered a competent user of a language, one needs to know not only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication. During this period, grammar teaching became less prominent, and in some cases, was abandoned (Hudson, 1998: 12). In recent years, grammar teaching has regained its rightful place in the language curriculum. People now agree that grammar is too important to be ignored, and that without a good knowledge of grammar, learners language development will be severely constrained. There is now a general consensus that the issue is not whether or not we should teach grammar. The issue now centers on questions such as, which grammar items do learners need most? How do we go about teaching grammar items in the most effective way? And are they best taught inductively or deductively? (Tomlinson, 1994: 22). In fa