Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins

Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins This chapter is devoted to the CLT approach, its origins and major features. Also the chapter sheds the light on grammar, how it is handled in language teaching, the way it is defined and lastly, and perhaps most importantly, its role in CLT. 3.1 Communicative Language Teaching CLT is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages or simply the communicative approach. 3.1.1 The Origins Educators such as Richards and Rodgers, Savignon, and Sano state that the origins of communicative language teaching are many, in so far as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. Sano (1984:171) says that the communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation method of foreign language instruction. Richards and Rodgers (1986:93), on the other hand, claim that the origins of CLT are to be found in the changes of situational language teaching approaches, which influenced the British language teaching tradition till the late 1960s. 29 Meanwhile, Savignon (1991:262) asserts that the emergence of CLT can be traced to concurrent developments on both sides of the Atlantic, i.e., in Europe and the United States. Educators and linguists e.g., Candlin (1981: 121) and Widdowson (1978: 61) saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language in those methods, i.e., situational language teaching, audio-lingual or grammar-translation method. Students did not know how to communicate using appropriate social languages, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at loss to communicate in the cultures of the language studied. In respect of this point, Widdowson remarks the following: The problem is that students, and especially students in developing countries, who have received several years of formal English teaching, frequently remain deficient in the ability to actually use the language, and to understand its use, in normal communication, whether in spoken or written mode (1972:15). Similarly, Howatt says that the original motivation for adopting a communicative approach in the early seventies was remedial, an attempt to overcome the inadequacies of existing, structural syllabuses, materials, and methods (1984:287). To put simply, the rapid application of these ideas by textbook writers; and the equally rapid acceptance of these new principles by British language teaching specialists, curriculum development centers, and even governments gave prominence nationally and internationally to what came to be referred to as communicative approach. There was a positive response from linguists, methodologists, and classroom teachers offering the best hope for the elaboration and diffusion of language teaching methods and materials that work, encourage and support learners in the development of their communicative competence (Savignon, 1991: 264). Although the movement began as largely British innovations focusing on alternative conceptions of a syllabus since the mid 1970s, the scope of communicative language teaching has expanded. Interest in and the development of communicative style teaching mushroomed in those years; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular. Also, numerous textbooks for teachers and teacher trainers expound on the nature of communicative approaches and offer techniques for varying ages and purposes (Brown, 1994: 217). It is this socio-linguistic perspective, which is the unifying principle and the driving force behind a communicative approach to language teaching (Sano, 1984: 174) Although this socio-linguistic approach is basically a language theory rather than a learning theory, taking into account Richards and Rodgers definition of approach, CLT encompasses a theory of language and a theory of language learning, and see it as an approach than a method. Briefly, they define an approach as a set of theories about the nature of language and of language learning. It is axiomatic, as it takes a number of assumptions as a starting point. A method, on the other hand, is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented. Besides, these writers claim, at the level of language theory, CLT has a rich, if somewhat eclectic theoretical base (1986:102). 3.1.2 Language Theory The rise of interest in the individual and in relationships among individuals, which characterized the sixties, marked the emergence of socio-linguistics, that branch of science where sociology and linguistics meet. A new light was shed on language, not simply as a system of structurally related elements, which form a rule, but as a vehicle for the expression of meaning and social interaction. In other words, the structural view was supplemented with a functional, a semantic and interactional view. It was this idea of language as communication that started off the whole communicative movement (Savignon, 1991: 266). And it was Hymes (1972) that made history by challenging Chomskys view on linguistic competence, and replacing it by the notion of communicative competence (cited in Savignon, 1991: 269). In the words of Canale and Swain (1980:7) communicative competence refers to the interaction between grammatical competence, or knowledge of the rules of grammar, and socio-linguistic competence, or knowledge of the rules of language use. In other words, rules of use and rules of usage are complementary and not mutually exclusive. According to them; the primary goal of a communicative approach must be to facilitate the integration of these two types of knowledge for the learner (1980: 25). Savignon notes that communicative competence characterizes the ability of language learners to interact with other speakers to make meaning, and [it] is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved (1983:9). Broadly speaking, communicative competence is an aspect convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. According to the socio-linguistic theory, the act of communication is seen not as basically an exchange of linguistic messages, but rather as a social phenomenon in which the use of language plays a part. In the field of the ethnography of communication, which Stern (1983:220) defines as the study of the individuals communicative activity in its social setting. language is a sub-ordinate, yet integrated part of social and situational systems, which are actually behavior patterns. Halliday argues the existence of a semantic network which is the linguistic realization of patterns of behavior. He postulates that the more we are able to relate the options in grammatical system to meaning potential in social contexts and behavioral settings, the more insight we shall gain into the nature of the language system (1978:44). In his functional account of language use, Halliday has criticized Chomskys linguistic, theory of competence. He says Linguistics is concerned with the description of speech acts or texts, since only through the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore all components of meaning, brought into focus (1970:145). This view complements Hymes opinion of communicative competence, and we can only understand language if we view it as an instrument or as a communicative tool. To which Widdowson (1979:50) adds that once we accept the need to teach language as communication, we can obviously no longer think of language in te rms only of sentences. This statement provides the justification for the emphasis on discourse in CLT. 3.1.3 Learning Theory In contrast to the amount that has been written in CLT literature about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory. However, two of the general learning theories, which emphasize common features among learners, are cognitive theory and skills theory. 3.1.3.1 Cognitive Theory According to cognitive theory, learning involves the ability to understand, to anticipate, and to relate new information to pre-existing mental structures. This focus on meaningful learning is derived from an attempt to make sense of the world. The heavy reliance of CLT practitioners on the mental schema theory is exemplified by Brumfits statement that new learning must be closely assimilated with what is already known, and if language is being learnt for use, then new learning must be directly associated with use (1979:189). Hence, at the level of learning theory this view supports Hallidays claim about the semantic network as a bridge between linguistic form and behaviour pattern, a link between words and the world. As Stern (1983:261) posits The learner must become a participant in a real-life context of language use as a condition of effective learning. Macdonough (1981:27) describes the cognitive process as hypothesis testing, and adds, significantly, that rules can only be found if the risk of error is run (ibid: 29). This view is reflected in the great tolerance of CLT towards errors. Errors are not to be avoided at all cost; they are not to be seen as evidence of non-learning, but being an external manifestation of the continual revision of the inter-language system. They are essential elements in the learning process. 3.1.3.2 Skills Theory This theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive learning and practice. However, advocates of this theory reject mechanical practice altogether as being totally irrelevant to genuine learning. Skills theory links mental and behavioural aspects of performance through a hierarchically organized set of plans, in which low level of automation is necessary to free attention for high level of planning. In this regard, Littlewood states the following: The cognitive aspect involves the internalization of plans for Creating appropriate behaviour. For language use, these plans derive mainly from the language system they include grammatical rules, procedures for selecting vocabulary, and social conventions governing speech. The behavioural aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into performance (1984:74). Skill practice is considered as a legitimate learning principle (Richards and Rodgers 1986), provided that it offers natural options of language use which reproduce the kinds of choice that occur in spontaneous communication (Stern 1983:260). 3.1.4 Major Features CLT is, relatively, a newly adapted approach in the area of foreign/second language teaching. CLT is a hybrid approach to language teaching, essentially progressive rather than traditional. (Wright 2000: 7). CLT can be seen to derive from a multidisciplinary perspective that includes, at least, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology and educational research (Savignon 1991:271). It is generally accepted that, proponents of CLT see it as an approach, not a method (See Richards and Rodgers 1986; Savignon 1991; Brown 1994). For Brown, for instance, [Communicative language teaching] is a unified but broadly- based theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching(1994: 244-245). He further maintains that though it is difficult to synthesize all of the various definitions that have been offered, the following four interconnected characteristics could be taken as a definition of CLT: 1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence. 2. Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes. 3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. 4. In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts (Brown, 1994: 245). The communicative approach is a hazy concept, which can have a variety of meanings along the continuum between a strong version and a weak one. Johnson (1979: 155) argues that the weak version attempts to integrate communicative activities into an existing programme, where as the strong version claims that language is acquired through communication. According to Howatt (1984: 279) the weak version, which became more or less the standard practice in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century, stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. As for the strong version of communicative teaching it advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. If the former could be described as learning to use English, the latter entails using English to learn it (ibid). Howatt adds that creating information gap activities, games, role-plays, dramas, simulations etc., are some of the exercise types in the weak versions of CLT. Although we have different versions and various ways in which CLT is interpreted and applied, educators in the area, Richards and Rodgers (1986, 2001); Littlewood (1981); Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983); Brumfit (1984); Candlin (1981); Widdowson (1978, 1979); Johnson and Morrow (1981);; Larsen-Freeman (1986); Celce- Murcia (1991b) and Johnson (1982), put some of the major characteristics of CLT as they are presented in the following subsections. 3.1.4.1 Emphasis on Language Function It is felt that students need knowledge of the linguistic form, meaning and functions. However, CLT gives primary importance to the use or function of the language and secondary importance to its structure or form (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 88; Johnson 1982:63). This does not mean that knowledge of grammar is not essential for effective communication, rather systematic treatment of both functions and forms is vital. Stressing on this, Littlewood says one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language (1981: 1). CLT suggests that grammatical structure might better be subsumed under various functional categorieswe pay considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules than we traditionally did (Brown, 1994: 245). Emphasis is also given to meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure). For Finocchiaro and Brumfit meaning is paramount (1983:91) since it helps the learners to manage the message they engage with the interlocutors. 3.1.4.2 Fluency and Accuracy Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques (Brown, 1994:245). However, at times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy because fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal (Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983:93) and accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in contexts. Fluency is emphasized over accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. It is important, however, that fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication. And much more spontaneity is present in communicative classrooms (Brown, 1994: 246) 3.1.4.3 Teaching Techniques Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Classrooms should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role plays, simulations, dramas, games, projects, etc., is the major activities which can help the learner provide spontaneity and improvisation, not just repetition and drills. Another characteristic of the classroom process is the use of authentic materials because it is felt desirable to give students the opportunity to develop the strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers. In the classroom, everything is done with a communicative intent. Information gap, choice and feedback are thought to be truly communicative activities (Johnson and Morrow, 1981: 25). 3.1.4.4 Grammar Teaching Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways along side more innovative approaches. Savignon (2002:5) says for the development of communicative ability [communication depends on grammar], research findings overwhelmingly support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning-focused experience. Grammar is important; and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. Disregard of grammar will virtually guarantee breakdown in communication (Thompson, 1996: 10). These writers also say that there are some misconceptions about CLT that makes difficult for many teachers to see clearly what is happening and to identify the useful innovations that CLT has brought. One of the persistent misconceptions is that CLT means not teaching grammar although the exclusion of explicit attention to grammar was never necessary part of CLT (ibid). In CLT involvement in communicative event is seen as central to language development, and this involvement necessarily requires attention to form (structure). In fact, it is certainly understandable that there was a reaction against the heavy emphasis on structure at the expense of natural communication. Nonetheless, it would seem foolish to make mistakes on the side of using communicative approach exclusively and totally disregard grammar teaching. Regarding this, Celce-Murcia comments: In spite of the intuitive appeal and the anecdotal evidence Supporting proposal for exclusively communicative language teaching, there is equally appealing and anecdotal evidence that grammarless approach. can lead to the development of a broken, ungrammatical, pidgenized form of the target language beyond which students rarely progress (1991a:462). Savignon also remarks that, communicative language teaching does not necessarily mean the rejection of familiar materials [grammar](2002:7). Rivers in her famous statement strengthened Savignons remark in that Saying that we do not need to teach grammar is like saying that we can have a chicken walking around without bones (cited in Arnold, 1994: 122). Nowadays, it seems that educators accept that an appropriate amount of class time should be devoted to grammar, but this does not mean a simple return to a traditional treatment of rules. Rather the focus has now moved away from the teacher covering to the learners discovering grammar (Thompson, 1996: 11). 3.1.4.5 Skills and Activities Communicative approach is not limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils confidence in all four skills areas. Students work on all four skills from the beginning, i.e., a given activity might involve reading, speaking, listening, and perhaps also writing (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 78). Of course, oral communication is seen to take place through negotiation between speaker(s) and listener(s) (most likely among students), so too is the interaction between the reader and writer, but with no immediate feedback from the reader. Hence, in the classroom, emphasis is given to oral and listening skills, as contact time with language is important. It paves way for more fluid command of the language. Learners do not hear the teacher all the time, but having personal contact themselves, practicing sounds themselves, working on the permutation of sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so. The idea of emphasizing the oral skills creates uncertainty among teachers. They misconceived CLT as if it were devoted to teaching only speaking. But, CLT is not exclusively concerned with face to face oral communication (Savignon, 2002:7). The principles of CLT apply equally to reading and writing activities that engage readers and writers in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning. In other words, it is important to recognize that it is not only the speaker (or writer) who is communicating. Instead, communication through language happens in both the written and spoken medium, and involves at least two people. Thompson (1996:13) further states that, though there is a complaint that CLT ignores written language, a glance at recent mainstream textbooks shows that reading and writing materials have been given attention too. 3.1.4.6 Pair Work and Group Work Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and if necessary to negotiate) meaning in situations where one person has information that others lack (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 82). More emphasis should be given to active modes of learning such as pair or group work in problem-solving tasks in order to maximize the time allotted to each student for learning to negotiate meaning. Many people assume group/pair work is applicable in all contexts. However, classroom group and/or pair work should not be considered an essential feature used all the time, and may well be inappropriate in some contexts (ibid). Thompson (1996:12) and Savignon (2002: 6) claim that group and/or pair work are flexible and useful techniques than that suggests, and they are active modes of learning which can help the learners to negotiate meaning and engage in problem-solving activities. The use of pair/group work is a physical signal of some degree of control and choice passing to the learners; but that needs to be complemented by real choice (learners need to be given some degree of control over their learning). Therefore, the use of pair/group work needs to be complemented by real choice for the following reasons: (1) they can provide the learners with a relatively safe opportunity to try out ideas before launching them in public; (2)they can lead to more developed ideas, and therefore greater confidence and more effective communication; (3) they can also provide knowledge and skills which may complement those of their partners which in turn lead to greater success in undertaking tasks (Thompson, 1996:13). 3.1.4.7 Errors and Correction Errors are seen as a natural outcome of the development of the communication skills and are therefore tolerated. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction noted by the teacher should be discreet. Let the students talk and express themselves and the form of the language becomes secondary. If errors of form are tolerated and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills, students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 121). 3.1.4.8 Evaluation Sano (1984: 176) states that evaluation is carried out in terms of fluency and accuracy. Students who have the most control of the structures and vocabulary are not necessarily the best communicators. A teacher may use formal evaluation i.e., he/she is likely to use a communicative test, which is an integrative and has a real communicative function (e.g., Madsen, 1983; Hughes, 1989). Larsen-Freeman (1986: 132) points out that the teacher can also informally evaluate his students performance in his role as an advisor or co-communicator. Savigonon, (1991: 275: ; 2002: 4) reports that the communicative approach follows global, qualitative evaluation of learner achievement as opposed to quantitative assessment of discrete linguistic features. 3.1.4.9 Native Language Use The students native language has no role to play (Larsen Freeman, 1986: 135). The target language is used both during communicative activities and for the purpose of classroom management. The students learn from these classroom management exchanges, and realize that the target language is a vehicle for communication. Whatever the case may be, the teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 8). However, for others (e.g., Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983: 98) judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. Teachers may provide directions of homework, class work and test directions by using the native language. 3.1.4.10 Teachers Role The teacher is the facilitator of students learning, manager of classroom activities, advisor during activities and a co-communicator engaged in the communicative activity along with the students (Littlewood, 1981: 9; Breen and Candlin, 1980: 90). But he does not always himself interact with students; rather he acts as an independent participant. Other roles assumed for the teacher are needs analyst, counselor, researcher and learner. Students, on the other hand, are more responsible managers of their own learning. They are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in the writings. They are communicators and actively engaged in negotiating meaning in trying to make themselves understood. They learn to communicate by communicating (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 142). Above all, since the teachers role is less dominant; the teaching/learning process is student-centered rather than teacher-centered. In other words, it is the learner who plays a great role in a large proportion of the process of learning. 3.2 Grammar and Grammars Yule (1996: 87) states that each adult speaker of a language clearly has some type of mental grammar, that is, a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. This grammar is subconscious and is not the result of any teaching. A second, and quite different, concept of grammar involves what might be considered linguistic etiquette, that is, the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. A third view of grammar involves the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, usually with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, for example, as distinct from the grammar of other languages. Linguists define grammar as a set of components: phonetics (the production and perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (the study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning. Because all languages are characterized by these components, by definition, language does not exist without grammar (VanPatten, 1990:288). However, grammar has not always been defined in these terms. Originally, the term grammar, grammatica, referred to the art of writing, as compared to rhetoric, rettorica, the art of speaking. As used today by many teachers and learners, grammar is loosely understood to be a set of rules that govern language, primarily its morphology and syntax. But morphology and syntax are only two components of grammar (Chamot Kupper, 1989: 15). Actually the word grammar has been defined rather differently by various grammarians and dictionary writers. According to Crystal (2003:207), grammar is systematic description of a language. Also, Widdowson describes that grammar is the name given to the knowledge of how words are adapted and arranged to form sentences (1988: 147; cited in Shih-Chuan Chang, 2011: 14). Still other definitions of the term specify the scope of grammar. In fact, grammar is multi-dimensional (Kennedy, 1987: 165) and has multi-meanings. It is generally thought to be a set of rules for choosing words and putting words together to make sense. Every language has grammar. It has been held that if a language is a building, the words are bricks and the grammar is the architects plan. One may have a million bricks, but do not make a building without a plan. Similarly, if a person knows a million English words, but he doesnt know how to put them together, then he cannot speak English (Karavas, 1996: 189). In other words, grammar is a framework to describe languages. 3.2.1 Grammar in Language Teaching The role of grammar is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in language teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential part of language instruction, so much that other aspects of language learning were either ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if one knew the grammatical rules of the language, he would be able to use it for communication. This concept was strongly challenged in the early 1970s (Ellis, 2006: 90). Knowledge of the grammatical system of the language, it was argued, was but one of the many components which underlay the notion of communicative competence. To be considered a competent user of a language, one needs to know not only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication. During this period, grammar teaching became less prominent, and in some cases, was abandoned (Hudson, 1998: 12). In recent years, grammar teaching has regained its rightful place in the language curriculum. People now agree that grammar is too important to be ignored, and that without a good knowledge of grammar, learners language development will be severely constrained. There is now a general consensus that the issue is not whether or not we should teach grammar. The issue now centers on questions such as, which grammar items do learners need most? How do we go about teaching grammar items in the most effective way? And are they best taught inductively or deductively? (Tomlinson, 1994: 22). In fa

Socrates :: Papers

Socrates Who is Socrates? Socrates was a Greek philosopher. He was the best of his time (400's BC), and is considered one of the wisest people of all times. Also, he was the first of three of the greatest teachers of ancient Greece. He was born and died in Athens. He was a short philosopher, who wore only a white robe at all times and all seasons. Socrates wasn’t interested in money nor fame. He wrote no books and most the information known about him comes from his students: Plato and Xenophon. He lived and based his teachings on principles and morals. He is well known for viewing philosophy as a pursuit of proper and for saying that philosophy was necessary to all men. He is also known for introducing two new methods: the Socratic Method and Socratic Irony. His philosophy and teachings have affected today’s way of thinking and contemporary philosophy in many ways Early Life Socrates lived thousands of years ago. There are no true records saying when he was really born, but Diogenes Laertius said, in his citation of Apollodrus’ Chronology, that Socrates was born in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad and on the sixth day of the month called Thargelion.1 Plato said that he died at the age of 70 in 399, therefore being born on 469 BC (just ten years after the death of Confucius). He was the son of a sculptor named Sophroniscus, and a midwife named Phaenarete. There is not a lot of information about Socrates’ education. Plurach wrote that a fortuneteller once told his father to let Socrates do whatever he wanted, ‘allow him free play without forcing anything on him’.2 He made sure he got the appropriate elementary education. He was taught literature, music, gymnastics, and sculpture.3 Later, Socrates became interested in Geometry, the language and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian Philosophers, and the general culture of Athens. In the Parmenides, Socrates, when he was very young, went to hear Zeno read a treatise and talks with him and Parmenides. Plato wrote that Socrates mentioned seeing Parmenides use the question-answer method (which he later used himself). In the writing the Meno, Socrates says that Meno was his teacher, in the words of the writer, he said that Meno was as bad a teacher to him as Gorgias was to Meno.

Prehistory and antiquity Essay

Since the end of the age of sail a ship has been any large buoyant watercraft. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity. Ships are used on lakes, seas, and rivers for a variety of activities, such as the transport of people or goods, fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare. Historically, a â€Å"ship† was a vessel with sails rigged in a specific manner. Ships and boats have developed alongside humanity. In armed conflict and in daily life they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. History The first known vessels date back to the Neolithic Period, about 10,000 years ago, but could not be described as ships. The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat, these sails gave early ships range. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull.[10] They used woven straps to lash the planks togetherand reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicted a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on shipbuilding. This treatise gives a technical exposition on the techniques of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, and the materials from which they were built. The Swahili people had various extensive trading ports dotting the coast of medieval East Africa and Great Zimbabwe had extensive trading contacts with Central Africa, and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania.[21] Before the introduction of the compass, celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117. Renaissance Until the Renaissance, navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology did not prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of Genoaand Venice, Hanseatic League, and the Byzantine navy. The carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established.[38] In 1498, by reaching India, Vasco da Gama proved that the access to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.[39] A major sea power, the Dutch in 1650 owned 16,000 merchant ships. Specialization and modernization During the first half of the 18th century, the French Navy began to develop a new type of vessel known as a ship of the line, featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were 56 metres (184 ft) long and their construction required 2,800 oak trees and 40 kilometres (25 mi) of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers. Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late 19th century. The industrial revolution, new mechanical methods of propulsion, and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships, the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts, and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions, such as firefighting, rescue, and research, also began to appear. In light of this, classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery, trade, military, and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike, and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors. Today In 2007, the world’s fleet included 34,882 commercial vessels with gross tonnage of more than 1,000 tons,[42] totaling 1.04 billion tons.[1] These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006, a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year.[1] In terms of tonnage, 39% of these ships are tankers, 26% arebulk carriers, 17% container ships and 15% were other types.[1] In 2002, there were 1,240 warships operating in the world, not counting small vessels such as patrol boats. The United States accounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels, Russia 1.35 million tons, the United Kingdom 504,660 tons and China 402,830 tons. The 20th century saw many naval engagements during the two world wars, the Cold War, and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The size of the world’s fishing fleet is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels, but the smallest are legion.Fishing vessels can be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide.[43] Types of ships[edit] Ships are difficult to classify, mainly because there are so many criteria to base classification on. One classification is based on propulsion; with ships categorised as a sailing ship, a steamship, or a motorship. Sailing ships are propelled solely by means of sails. Another way to categorize ships and boats is based on their use, as described by Paulet and Presles.[46] This system includes military ships, commercial vessels, fishing boats, pleasure craft and competitive boats. In this section, ships are classified using the first four of those categories, and adding a section for lake and river boats, and one for vessels which fall outside these categories. Commercial vessels Commercial vessels or merchant ships can be divided into three broad categories: cargo ships, passenger ships, and special-purpose ships.[47] Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by bulk carriers, packed directly onto a general cargo ship in break-bulk, packed in intermodal containers as aboard a container ship, or driven aboard as in roll-on roll-off ships. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as oil tankers which may include both crude and finished products of oil, chemical tankers which may also carry vegetable oils other than chemicals and LPG/LNG tankers, Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to very large cruise ships. This type of vessel includes ferries, which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; ocean liners, which carry passengers from one place to another; and cruise ships, which carry passengers on voyages undertaken for pleasure Special-purpose vessels are not used for transport but for other tasks. Examples include tugboats, pilot boats, rescue boats, cable ships, research vessels, survey vessels, and icebreakers. Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity.[citation needed] Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a captain, with deck officers and marine engineers on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary, for example scientists aboard research vessels. Commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a diesel or, less usually, gas turbine engine.[citation needed] The fastest vessels may use pump-jet engines.[citation needed] Naval vessels Naval vessels are those used by a navy for military purposes. There have been many types of naval vessel. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: surface warships, submarines, and support and auxiliary vessels. Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines and amphibious assault ships. The distinction between cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes is not rigorous; the same vessel may be described differently in different navies. Battleships were used during the Second World War and occasionally since then, but were made obsolete by the use of carrier-borne aircraft and guided missiles.[48] Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessel, such as minesweepers, patrol boats, offshore patrol vessels, replenishment ships, and hospital ships which are designatedmedical treatment facilities.[49] Fast combat vessels such as cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability. They also usually have advanced electronics and communication systems, as well as weapons. Fishing vessels Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world’s fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.[43] More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels[51] were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.[52] Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than 30 meters (98 ft) but up to 100 metres (330 ft) for a large tuna or whaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel, the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Weather vessels[edit] A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in marine weather forecasting. Surface weather observations were taken hourly, and four radiosonde releases occurred daily. [54] It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. Proposed as early as 1927 by the aviation community,[56] the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948, with 13 to be supplied by the United States. Their crews were normally out to sea for three weeks at a time, returning to port for 10 day stretches.[54] Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like other ships tended to for safety reasons.[58] They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones.[59] The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to theGreat Storm of 1987.[60] Beginning in the 1970s, their role became largely superseded by weather buoys due to the ships’ significant cost.[61] The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1990. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M (â€Å"Mike†), which was put out of operation on 1 January 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation. Inland and coastal boats Many types of boats and ships are designed for inland and coastal waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes, rivers and canals. Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Barges towed along canals by draft animals on an adjacent towpath contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution but were out competed in the carriage of high value items because of the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility ofrail transport. Riverboats and inland ferries are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters, and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft, being broad of beam and rather square in plan, with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes, seas, or oceans. Lake freighters, also called lakers, are cargo vessels that ply the Great Lakes. The most well-known is the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, the latest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats, not ships. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called â€Å"salties.† Because of their additional beam, very large salties are never seen inland of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Because the smallest of the Soo Locks is larger than any Seaway lock, salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Because of their deeper draft, salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes, â€Å"topping off† when they have exited the Seaway. Similarly, the largest lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron,Erie) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks, beginning at the Welland Canal that bypasses the Niagara River. Since the freshwater lakes are less corrosive to ships than the salt water of the oceans, lakers tend to last much longer than ocean freighters. Lakers older than 50 years are not unusual, and as of 2005, all were over 20 years of age.[62] The St. Mary’s Challenger, built in 1906 as the William P Snyder, is the oldest laker still working on the Lakes. Similarly, the E.M. Ford, built in 1898 as the Presque Isle, was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 the Ford was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw, Michigan. Architecture[edit] Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion, whether it’s a pole, an ox, or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common, but not as universal, such as compartments, holds, a superstructure, and equipment such as anchors and winches. Hull For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship’s hull.[63] There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America’s Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull , two in the case ofcatamarans, or three in the case of trimarans. Hulls have several elements. The bow is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a bulbous bow. The keel is at the very bottom of the hull, extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the stern, and many hulls have a flat back known as a transom. Common hull appendages include propellers for propulsion, rudders for steering, and stabilizers to quell a ship’s rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel’s work, such as fishing gear and sonar domes. Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat, and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves, weather collisions and groundings. Propulsion systems Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion, sailing, and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes rowing, which was used even on large galleys. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the 19th century. Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, an impeller or wave propulsion fins. Steam engines were first used for this purpose, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side, such as manual oars or some paddles,[64] steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails, a steering system becomes necessary. The most common is a rudder, a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a tiller, manual wheels, or electro-hydraulic systems. Autopilot systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. Ducted propellers are sometimes used for steering. Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the outboard motor, the bow thruster, and the Z-drive. Some sails, such as jibs and the mizzen sail on a ketch rig, are used more for steering than propulsion. Holds, compartments, and the superstructure[edit] Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate berthings and heads are found on sailboats over about 25 feet (7.6 m). Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room, a galley, and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine oil, and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship’s trim and modify its stability. Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats, these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships, they are almost always located near the ship’s stern. On passenger ships and warships, the superstructure generally extends far forward. Equipment[edit] Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship’s era, design, area of operation, and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include: Masts can be the home of antennas, navigation lights, radar transponders, fog signals, and similar devices often required by law. Ground tackle includes equipment such as mooring winches, windlasses, and anchors. Anchors are used to moor ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels, the chain runs through a hawsepipe. Cargo equipment such as cranes and cargo booms are used to load and unload cargo and ship’s stores. Safety equipment such as lifeboats, liferafts, and survival suits are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use. Design considerations Hydrostatics[edit] Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways: For most vessels, known as displacement vessels, the vessel’s weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull. For planing ships and boats, such as the hydrofoil, the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel’s speed, until the vessel is foilborne. For non-displacement craft such as hovercraft and air-cushion vehicles, the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water. A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal, the boat floats. Hydrodynamics[edit] The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components, the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and wave making resistance. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power, it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so, high-speed vessels are often more slender, with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. Antifouling paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the bulbous bow assist in decreasing wave resistance. A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed, the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed, however, the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate, and so it grows in amplitude. Since the water is not able to â€Å"get out of the way of the hull fast enough†, the hull, in essence, has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an exponential increase in resistance with increasing speed. This hull speed is found by the formula: or, in metric units: Where L is the length of the waterline in feet or meters. When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94, it starts to outrun most of its bow wave, and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34, the hull speed, the wavelength is now longer than the hull, and the stern is no longer supported by the wake, causing the stern to squat, and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave, and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34, it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level, at speed/length ratios of under 1.0. For large projects with adequate funding, hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of computational fluid dynamics. Vessels are also subject to ocean surface waves and sea swell as well as effects of wind and weather. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment, and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled, to an extent, by ballasting or by devices such as fin stabilizers. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves, a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes, ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching. How it has been convincingly shown in scientific studies of the 21st century[65][66], controllability of some vessels decreases dramatically in some cases that are conditioned by effects of the bifurcation memory. This class of vessels includes ships with high manoeuvring capabilities, aircraft and controlled underwater vehicles designed to be unstable in steady-state motion that are interesting in terms of applications. These features must be considered in designing ships and in their control in critical situations. Lifecycle A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship, the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between theshipowners, operators, designers and the shipyard. Then, the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction, the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways, ranging from shipwrecks to service as a museum ship to the scrapyard. Design A vessel’s design starts with a specification, which a naval architect uses to create a project outline, assess required dimensions, and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After this initial rough draft, the architect can create an initial hull design, a general profile and an initial overview of the ship’s propulsion. At this stage, the designer can iterate on the ship’s design, adding detail and refining the design at each stage. As environmental laws are strictening, ship designers need to create their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-term- can be disassmbledor disposed easily and that waste is reduced to a minimum. Construction[edit] Ship construction takes place in a shipyard, and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat, to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about 30 meters (98 ft), by the laying of the keel. This is done in a drydock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is afloat. Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship launching is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually when the vessel is formally named. Repair and conversion Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career, whether they be underway, pierside, or in some cases, in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons. Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs, such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: oil tankers are often converted into floating production storage and offloading units. End of service Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years. As ships age, forces such as corrosion, osmosis, and rotting compromise hull strength, and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point, it can bescuttled at sea or scrapped by shipbreakers. Ships can also be used as museum ships, or expended to construct breakwaters or artificial reefs. Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard, and are lost in fires, collisions, grounding, or sinking at sea. There are more than 3 million shipwrecks on the ocean floor, the United Nations estimates. Buoyancy A floating boat displaces its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole divided by the volume below the waterline is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.

Nature Vs Nurture Essay - 968 Words

From Dr. Money’s perspective, raising Bruce as a girl would allow him to live a â€Å"normal† life, if he were to live his life without a penis, he would be seen as an outsider and rejected from society. He also suggested to put Bruce on estrogen, but also surgically give him a cosmetic vagina. Dr. Money explained to Ron and Janet that Bruce/Brenda, would psychologically mature as a woman, and be attracted to men, as well as be able to have sexual intecourse, without a problem. According to Bruce’s parents, there was no reason â€Å"that it shouldn’t work† (50). However, they could have thought it out thoroughly, what if Brenda didn’t feel comfortable in her own skin? Would she feel as though something is wrong with her? This is where the topic of†¦show more content†¦Money, who then scheduled sessions for Brenda, as well as her twin brother, Brian. Regardless of how Ron and Janet believed the sessions were going, Brenda felt uncomf ortable and eerie, speaking with Dr. Money. The doctor would slowly gear into the topic of Brenda’s vagina, stipulating that she have an additional two surgeries, in order to fully transform her into a young woman. The surgeries being to make her urethra into the â€Å"female position† and secondly, to â€Å"excavate a full vaginak canal† (92). Brenda did not agree to this, as she envisioned herself as a male, with facial hair, friends, and a â€Å"sports car†. Evidently, Brenda was not content with herself. Brenda began to rebel against her parents, Dr. Money, and society also. She was not pleased with having to dress up for the holidays, as wearing dresses meant acting like a girl, she felt as though she was being pressured to be someone she’s not. â€Å"I always felt like an oddball around my own family† (99). Not only was she the â€Å"oddball† in her family, but also at school with her peers. The Child Guidance Clinic would inform her parents that her behaviour was defiant, unhappy, and emotional (100). She felt incredibly troubled by her sessions with Dr. Money, that she imposed a threat to commit suicide (141). Correspondingly, Brenda was transferred to Dr. Keith Sigmundson, who was a part of the Psychiatry Department in British Columbia. Dr. Sigmundson concluded that her fear was not an act,Show MoreRelatedNature vs. nurture Essay1322 Words   |  6 PagesNature vs. Nurture It is a matter of concern whether human behaviors and characteristics are determined by nature or nurture. If a person’s behavior is inherited directly from the genes of his/her parents or other biological factors, then it is the nature that determines his character. But if the environment that a person grew up in, affects his behavior, then it is the nurture that determines his/her character. It became a great matter of controversy among scientists, psychologists and sociologistsRead MoreNature Vs. 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I will discuss the difference between nature and nurture and then I’ll apply to each of these philosophers and how they react to it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When looked up in the dictionary the term nature means the universe and its phenomena or one’s own character and temperamentRead More Nature vs Nurture Essay778 Words   |  4 PagesNature vs Nurture Most of us have an intuition that, although our genes provide advantages and constraints, we retain great control over our lives. However, we are developing a second, competing intuition that, like it or not, our genes determine our abilities, our preferences, and our emotions. We would like to think we are much more than the sum of our genes, but scientists have apparently demonstrated that our genes determine some of our most complex behavioral and cognitive characteristicsRead MoreEssay on Nature vs Nurture1052 Words   |  5 PagesNature vs. Nurture M. B. Liberty University Psychology 101 Nature vs. Nurture There has been extensive debate between scholars in the field of psychology surrounding the Nature vs. Nurture issue. Both nature and nurture determine who we are and neither is solely independent of the other. â€Å"As the area of a rectangle is determined by its length and its width, so do biology and experience together create us.†(Myers, 2008, p. 8) Carl Gustav Jung, and leading thinker and creator of analytical